نشریه پژوهش های علوم تاریخی
سال دهم شماره 2 (پیاپی 18، پاییز و زمستان 1397)

Since agriculture has been one of the mainstays of the Iranian society's economic structure during the Islamic period, the policies and actions of governments to establish stability and security in the field of agricultural activities had significant effects on their improvement. The importance of the study on governments' policies and their approaches to the agricultural economy would be determined considering the role of the ruling political systems on agricultural life of Iranian society. Having defeated the Seljuqs (1037-1194), the Turkic Khwarazmian dynasty (1077-1231) succeeded in taking power in Iran. Based on resources and through a descriptive-analytic method, the present study is conducted to determine the political-military causes of transformation in landholding and agricultural economics during the period of Khwarazmids. The findings show that the Khwarazm Shahs took certain policies to improve agriculture until 'Ala al-Din Tekish Khwarazmshah, although handing over the agricultural lands to the army commanders under the name of Iqta' (an Islamic practice of assigning lands to militaries in return for their military services) changed to the main policy of government since his reign and the reign of Mohammad Khwarazmshah. Due to the profiteering behavior of Muqtis (those having been assigned the lands) this policy led to the rivalries between the Kharazm Shahs over capturing various regions and, as a result, they had to recruit more Turkish fighters and, consequently, to provide more lands to their commanders. So the agricultural economy of Khwarazmids declined in this particular period as a result of contradiction existed between decamping Turks' livestock methods with that of agriculture was popular in rural communities of Khwarezm.

Court documents are among the most important products of the bureaucracy system, which can be used as a valuable source for research on the history of evolution in an administrative system. This importance increases due to the lack of resources and information about Iran's administrative system during the period of Zand dynasty. Presenting some points about the political stability of this period and its effect on production process of court documents and also referring to the provisions of historical sources written about the ruling administrative system and its developments in this period, it has been tried, in present research, to provide an image of such documents production structures through the study of remaining court documents. To do so, three main structures were identified after examining the political and administrative conditions of the country during the reign of Zand dynasty and considering the time dispersion and the quantity of production of examined documents. Finally, efforts have been made to point the diplomatics of the court documents remained from the period of Zands and their apparent features. It will be shown on one hand, that along with the rise of political crises, stability and, consequently, the volume of court documents production declined, and on the other hand, the formal and content features of court documents will be described.

As one of the oldest and most complex Indo-Iranian deities, Vayu has been characterized outstandingly in the Avesta. Although Wāy's dual character is the product of late thinking and he was considered as a dual-faced single character in early periods, there is a very clear distinction between the Good Wāy (Wāy i weh) and the bad Wāy (Wāy i wattar) in Pahlavi literature. The constructive aspect of Vayu's nature is illustrated and his destructive aspect is pointed in Rām Yašt, but the destructive aspect is explicitly expressed in the Aogәmadaēcā and Vayu is the messenger of death in this text. It also seems that Vayu has been the supreme deity in a society that has had its own cult, rituals and special idioms. Some features of his cult are comprehensible by examining specific parts of Aogәmadaēcā. Later, with the advent of Zoroastrianism, this high-ranking deity was reduced in to a subordinate. However, the old pre- Zoroastrian religion lost its color, but because of the importance and popularity among its followers, it survived, and later transferred many of its features to the Zoroastrian religion. It has been tried, in present study, to recognize Vayu's character and some aspects of his religion in Aogәmadaēcā.

The local and bureau elites had been always among the effective political and social groups in Fars province in a way that the Fars governance was directly related to their performance. Therefore, the analysis of the historical events of Fars requires understanding and explaining the relations existed between the elites and the other effective elements in province. Moshir al-Molk family is one of those local elites who, with the presence of nearly half a century (1826-1876) in the Ministry of Fars, gathered a lot of strength and credibility. Considering the influence of this family on the political and social life of Fars and using historical sources, the actions of this family in the governance of Fars is examined in present study through a descriptive-analytical method. The findings show that, with regard to the arrangement of political forces and distribution and concentration of power in Fars, the Moshir al-Molk family interacted and competed with other local elites, especially Qashqai and Qawam al-molk families, to access interests relying on power resources (class, personal, public, spiritual etc.). Beyond their political functions, their socio-economic activities had a significant role in promotion of their social status. The results also prepare detailed information about their arrival and performance, especially their most famous character, Mirza Abolhassan Khan Moshir al-molk (1840-1917).

Since some of the Roman emperors launched massive religious prosecutions against Christians, a large number of them entered Iran during the rule of the Parthians. Christians even enjoyed a good opportunity to hold their religious affairs during the reign of the first Sassanid kings, especially Shapur I. However, Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire in the fourth century AD, there has been, for more than a century, a prevailing hypothesis among scholars of history that Shapur II placed Christians under intense religious prosecutions in the fourth century AD. The syriac testimonies dating back to the fifth century AD which traditionally dealt with this issue are the main sources show these prosecutions. With the assumption that such events have taken place and on the basis of it, some researchers, on the other hand, have attempted to interpret the limited resources left from the fourth century AD. Various related resources, including those of the fourth century AD and the Syriac testimonies have been examined, in present study, and it has been shown that there are many contradictions and prejudices in reports of Christian resources about the religious prosecutions were enacted during the reign of Shapur II that cause serious doubts about their credibility. Finally, it has been made clear that Christian rituals did not lead to extensive prosecution in that period and the Christian community continued to grow during the rule of Sassanid Empire.

Economic factors are among the many reasons that researchers consider as the causes of the collapse of Iranian governments during the Islamic era, what are being studies in the researches of contemporary scholars who want to recognize the economic roots of decadence and fall of them. A review on harmful economic changes occurred in the period of Safavids ruling in the mid-17th century can help us to clarify the causes of their fall and to find out the false beliefs about economic development throughout the Safavid period. On the basis of reliable written resources and through theoretical researches, it has been tried in present study to mention the weakness of Iran's fundamental structures during the period of Safavids and the effect of several factors such as governmental monopoly, reduction of revenues in goods transit, the heterogeneity of foreign trade capability, neglecting of agricultural optimization, etc. on the decline of the political system. The results show how various internal factors, such as: the government monopoly, and its weakness in economic planning, and the problems caused by war and instability, on one hand, and external factors such as: financial and commercial increasing of foreign competitors' capability and damages caused by reduced surveillance and increased border threats led to the collapse of Iran's economic structure and then the fall of the Safavid government.

After the victory of the leftist revolution in Russia, Iran's northern neighbor, the government took economy under its complete control and nationalized the foreign trade according to its socialist approach. So, the Soviet government established two state-owned companies Venshtork and Centersayoz in early 1920 and gave them the monopoly of Soviet's exports and imports. The link between the two economies of Iran and Russia provided the field of activity for two above mentioned companies in the northern regions of Iran, including Khorasan, Mazandaran, Gilan and Azerbaijan. It has been tried, accordingly, in present study to examine the business activities of Venshtork and Centersayoz in Iran during the years 1921 to 1927 and their consequences. The results of this research, conducted through a historical method and based on archival documents, show that the commercial performances of these two companies created a serious crisis in economy of Iran's northern regions and a severe dissatisfaction in Iranian businessmen. In addition, it has left a lot of political and social consequences. Because of the ideological political approach of the Soviet government, the Iranian government's efforts to resolve this crisis were not successful until the trade deal between the two countries was concluded in September 1927.

While Kushan Empire, and in general, Central Asia is going to be studied historically, recognition of its economic situation gets a high level of importance. Therefore, their trade and commerce, agriculture, animal husbandry, handicrafts and their income of Buddhist temples were selected as the main components to identify the economic situation of Kushans. Despite the fundamental role these components played in prosperity of Kushans' economy, they have been paid less attention by the researchers. The present study is to analyze the Kushans' economic activities, especially their commercial activities and the factors affected them. So, by examining the causes of their economic improvement and the ways they used to get such prosperity, the role of each of above mentioned components have been analyzed. The results show that the foreign trade of Kushans with countries such as China, India, Iran and Greece, all on the Silk Road, should be considered as the most important factor affecting their economic prosperity. It was also found that, although the geographic territory of the empire had provided it the necessary facilities for progress economically, but what made the exploitation of environmental facilities and achievement of a prosperous economy possible was the approach of Kushan Emperors in adopting effective policies and providing security.

The early 19th century was the beginning of fundamental changes in Iran. The Iran-Russia wars made Iranians think of change. The long-standing rule of Nasser-al-Din Shah (1847 - 1896) and the dominant conditions of Iran during his reign resulted in formation of centers for Iranians outside the borders. Istanbul was one of the most important sites where such centers formed. The Akhtar newspaper, being published in Istanbul, was responsible to broadcast the transformationalist views and ideas of this group of Iranians inside the country. The activists who directed Akhtar were involved in two levels of institutionalization of the parliament: firstly, by suggesting intellectual concepts such as science, freedom, and law they wanted to influence the reader's thought and beliefs, and, then, they tried to make them familiar with legislative structure and strengthen their beliefs and wills to participate in administration of the country through introduction of legislation and some examples in constitutional countries. In their view, strengthening the will of the people to participate in the fate of their country could provide the ground for changes needed to achieve the goal. Accordingly, it has been tried in present study to review the approach of the Akhtar to civil structuralizing and its points of view about parliament as a civil institution, and the role it plays in achieving the goal.

Despite the origins of its ancient civilization, Iraq is a newly established country which has been founded in the early 1930s. The formation of "National Identity" has been faced many difficulties and challenges since the founding of this country. Ethnic recitation is one of those challenges has affected Iraq's national identity throughout the years before the collapse of Saddam Hussein's regime in April 2003, and even after the collapse of his regime, it has experienced a change only in its mode. This ethnic recitation of the Iraqi national identity is discursively divergent and alien-maker in terms of discourse, and culminated besides other conventional "aliens" such as Colonialism, Imperialism, Zionism and Iran in pan-Arabist discourse during the imposed Iraqi – Iranian war. Iran was highlighted as an outstanding alien under the title of "Eastern Gate of Arab World", the policy through which a large portion of Iranians living in Iraq were expelled by considering Shiite and Iranian the same. This divergent Pan-Arabist discourse in alien-making of Iran has undergone different changes since the beginning of Iraq and forced a large part of Iraqi inhabitants rejected from Iraqi identity by using terms such as Shu'ubi, 'Ajami, Magus (fire worshiper) and Safavid. The issue of Iran has gotten a new dimension after the fall of Saddam and is in a situation that has still the capacity to return due to the evolution of Iraqi identity.

Gilan witnessed significant social movements during the reign of Safavids. This was due to the factors like specific climatic conditions, proximity to the sea, presence of massive forests and thickets, powerful local families, mass production of silk, the high income of the province through the trade of this product and the distinctive approach of the government to this area. However, when the inheritance privileges of the local governors were compromised and the heavy and cruel taxes imposed on various classes of the society, and when the Safavid policies and programs in the field of economy and the administrating manners of the province, including privatization of fertile lands, creating monopoly on silk trade and establishment of non-native groups such as Georgians, Armenians and Qizilbash tribes were implemented the local families, urban classes and peasants in Gilan were united against the Safavid government. Through a descriptive-analytic method and inspired by Eric Olin Wright's class analysis methodology, it has been tries in present study to explore the typology of Gilan movements and to explain why and how they evolved. The research claim is that the Gilan movements included a vast range of tribal-urban, tribal- peasant, and peasant movements, and the changes happened in the Safavid government's approach to the economic and political policies towards this profitable province resulted in suppression of urban families, emergence of other types of movements and bring new demands up.