Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology
Volume:21 Issue: 7, Dec 2019

Electronic commerce (E-commerce) is a contemporary concept with huge potential that is fundamentally changing how business is done. This paper describes robust E-commerce strategies for trading agricultural goods and services. The purpose of this study was to enhance the efficiency of E-commerce in the export of agricultural commodities. Since the SWOT method is a key tool used by businesses to formulate strategic plans, this study conducted a SWOT analysis of E‐commerce to identify the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats faced by E‐commerce in current scenarios. A random sampling method was used to select the statistical population, which was composed of 96 experts from the Ministry of Agriculture. Seventy-five questionnaires were distributed to the experts (N= 75) using Morgan and Krejsi's table, of which 59 questionnaires were filled (n= 59). The questionnaire consisted of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats to E-commerce development and it was prepared using the Delphi technique. The important results of SWOT analysis constituted a framework to help planners and managers realize their goals and enhance the export of agricultural commodities. The resulting SWOT matrix analysis was located in the area of WO (conservative strategy). Accordingly, it is recommended that for proper exploitation of environmental opportunities, organizational weaknesses should be taken into account. Some important strategies suggested based on this study are enforcing laws and providing effective incentives to reduce production costs relative to global prices as well as creating innovation in the export process using E-commerce.

Implementation of Conservation Agriculture (CA) project is a process of multi-participation that involves actors from agricultural researchers and scientists, extension agents, private consulting firms, pioneer farmers, rural cooperatives, family members, peer farmers, etc. The social interactions between farmers and actors drive the CA development. Therefore, this study analyzes the social network structures and characteristics of various actors by social network analysis in seven processes of applying CA in Iran. The research sample was composed of farmers who participated in the CA project in three provinces of Fars, Golestan, and Khuzestan (n= 133). The research instrument was a questionnaire that was designed as a matrix. The findings showed that pioneer farmers, CA farmers, and family members were the main actors in the farmers' social network. It can be concluded that these actors were the main social power in applying CA principles by farmers and they constituted the main centrality of the farmers' social network. It means that farmers are more likely to interact with local actors, and they interact less with the government and the actors outside the rural community. Therefore, it can be recommended that social power should be identified and project management should be organized through them in attempts to implement CA.

Considering the importance of investment in renewable energies and the numerous uses of this technology in the agriculture sector, the present research was conducted with the aim of investigating the factors affecting the decision-making process in renewable energies investment in the agricultural sector in Iran. This study is a non-experimental survey research in which structural equations modeling method was used for data analysis (LISREL 8.72). The statistical population consisted of 130 investors of active companies in the area of renewable energies in the agriculture sector throughout Iran. Using Krejcie and Morgan Table as well as simple random sampling method, 97 (n= 97) individuals were chosen as the sample size. The main data collection instrument was questionnaire, whose validity was confirmed by a panel of experts. To measure the reliability of the research tool, 30 copies of the questionnaire were completed by active investors in the area of renewable energies as well as the experts of Iranian Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Organization. Then, Cronbach Alpha coefficient was calculated by SPSS 22 for different sections of the completed questionnaire, which showed a good reliability. Based on the results, since the calculated Composite Reliability (CR) index was larger than 0.6 and the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) was larger than 0.5 for each of the five external and internal latent studied variables, the latent variables had convergent and divergent validity. The results indicated that among the studied variables, knowledge of renewable energy technology, a priori beliefs, market policy preferences, institutional pressure, and attitude toward radical technological innovations had the greatest impact on the renewable energies investment decision-making process in the agriculture sector, respectively.

In this study, a gender analysis of various dimensions that affect the food security status of households in the villages of Kermanshah County was conducted based on a sustainable livelihood framework. The non-experimental research method involved data collection, which was performed to identify causal relationships. There were 25,671 households in the agricultural sector of the villages of Kermanshah County. Among them, 750 people (375 women and 375 men in 375 households) were selected as a proportional sample based on a stratified sampling method. A questionnaire was used for data collection. The validity of the questionnaire was confirmed by expert opinions, and its reliability was confirmed by sequential theta coefficients (0.714-0.838). Structural equation modeling was implemented based on the Multiple-Indicator, Multiple-Cause (MIMIC) Bayesian approach. Then, the structural MIMIC model was presented as the basis for comparison between two groups. The results of the research indicate that men had greater food security than women in terms of food availability, accessibility, and stability in the studied households. Men had more financial capital, social capital, and natural capital than women and were more affected by vulnerability and the transformation of structures and processes. Conversely, women had more human and physical capital and better livelihood strategies than men. Therefore, the economic empowerment of women and the professional training of men in the region should be prioritized to improve food security and development programs. These results can play a decisive role in the continuation or halting of programs for achieving food security and sustainable development.

Iran is considered as a vulnerable country in terms of erosion and degradation of soil resources. One of the solutions that have been proposed in recent years to solve this crisis is to pay special attention to the behavioral, cognitive, and social dimensions of soil conservation behavior in agricultural development programs in addition to the technical aspects. In this regard, a study with a descriptive-correlational and causal-relational method was conducted to identify the most important factors influencing the soil conservation behavior among the Iranian farmers and agricultural community. To this end, a sample of 120 farmers in Mazandaran Province was selected using stratified random sampling with appropriate assignment. The results showed that environmental consciousness, environmental values, and social pressures have significant impacts on soil conservation behavior of farmers. Finally, using the results and insights gained from this study, six practical suggestions have been proposed to managers and policy-makers towards the better management of agricultural soil resources. Application of each of these suggestions can act as a turning point in the improvement of the status of Iran's agricultural sector in general and soil resources in particular.

Agricultural ethics has been widely discussed in recent decades. However, in spite of numerous studies there is no consensus on this issue, especially in developing countries. Accordingly, this study was conducted with the aim of the examining farmers’ view on agricultural ethics in Sonqur County, Kermanshah province, Iran. This study used a hybrid model to define the concept of agricultural ethics through three phases. For the theoretical phase, the attributes of agricultural ethics were identified through review of the literature (until 2017). Also, in-depth interviews with 32 participants were conducted for the fieldwork to develop attributes from the data and to verify those identified from the literature review. In the third phase, attributes and final analysis of agricultural ethics were extracted from the first and second phases. Based on the integration of the literature and the results from the interviews, agricultural ethics was described as follows: a complex subject involving farm structure, food security, food safety, global trade, agricultural biotechnology, trust in science, research ethics, environmental impacts, animal ethics, and rights. The scope of agricultural ethics ranges from macro issues at national and global levels to human ecology (human relationship with the environment) of a farmer, suggesting that it has a systemic thinking that is necessary to achieve sustainability.

Capital as the engine of economic growth and development is one of the fundamental pillars of economy. Many developing countries are struggling to achieve sustainable economic growth through investment in order to achieve economic development. Investing in agricultural sector, due to the steady increase in demand for food and other agricultural products, is of particular importance and can lead to growth in production and employment in this sector. In addition, backward and forward relationships of the agricultural sector with other sectors also contribute to the growth of production and employment. Accordingly, in the present study, the analysis of the effects of the policy of investment growth in agriculture based on the method of Social Accounting Matrix (SAM) was considered. The effects of applying this policy (including net, open and closed effects) have been analyzed in three scenarios. The results of net effects showed that the incomes of production activities would be increased in each of these scenarios. In addition, due to the implementation of the first scenario, industrial and agricultural sectors, and because of the implementation of the second and third scenarios, the sectors of industries, agriculture, and horticulture had the maximum increase in production. Also, the study of open effects also shows an increase in the income of the factors of production and institutions caused by the application of the above policies. Investigating the closed effects of the package also showed that the overall economy resulting from the above scenarios increases, such that closed effects are much stronger than direct effects. The findings also showed that the closed effects of the aforementioned scenarios on the industries, services, and commerce were more than the agricultural sector itself and its sub-sectors, indicating a strong link between these sectors and the agricultural sector and its sub-sectors.

In recent years, the high cost of raising livestock and, consequently, the sharp increase in the price of red meat in Iran have reduced its demand, and people consume chicken meat as a substitute for it. This has reduced the production incentives and, with the bankruptcy of some beef cattle farms, the welfare of producers and consumers of this product face serious danger. To overcome this problem, understanding cost structure and reducing consumer price by reducing production costs seems necessary. Therefore, the aim of this research was to evaluate cost structure and economies of scale of beef cattle farms in Mashhad. For this purpose, the short-run Translog cost function along with input cost share equations were estimated using the iterated seemingly unrelated regression method. The data were collected in 2017 from beef cattle producers by interview using structured questionnaires. The result showed that there were increasing returns to scale for all farms. In addition, the demands for all inputs were perfectly inelastic. On the other hand, there was weak complementary and substitute relationship between inputs. According to the results of this research, the most important factor of beef production in the selected farms was feed, whose demand was inelastic and the possibility of substituting it with other inputs was very weak. Therefore, the adoption of policies by the government, including subsidies for feeding cattle and increasing the import of this input, can reduce the production cost and prevent beef prices from rising.

Volatility and imperfect price transmission in food markets always impress the welfare of producers and consumers, especially in the developing countries. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the price relationship in vertical market levels (i.e. farm gate, wholesale and retail) of rice as a staple food for Iranians, using the Vector Error Correction Model (VECM) and the Generalized AutoRegressive Conditional Heteroskedastic (GARCH). The data used was based on monthly observations of prices in Kamfiroz Rice Market from April 1997 to March 2015. Results showed that the direction of Granger causality and partial price transmission were from farm gate to retail market as well as from wholesale to farm gate level and retail market to wholesale, such that, if wholesale prices increase by 1%, farm gate prices will increase about 0.37%. Also, if retail prices increase by 1%, then wholesale prices will increase by about 0.36%. In addition, if farm gate prices increase by 1%, then retail prices will decrease by about 0.08%. Results also implied that retail and wholesale price volatilities have positive spillover effects on the volatility of farm gate prices (i.e. 0.50 and 0.31, respectively). In addition, retail prices are more sensitive to wholesale prices and more volatile (i.e. 0.56) than the others. Finally, in order to increase the transparency of information and increase the efficiency of price transmission in Kamfiroz Rice Market, it was suggested that marketing cooperatives of this product be increased and supported more.

In the current study, the effect of phenotypic factors on Somatic Cell Count (SCC) was evaluated by using classification tree technique. The current study used a total of 1,972,031 test day records of SCC in parity 1 to 4 collected from 1,281 Iranian Holstein-Friesian cows’ herds through 2004–2013. The SCC records were converted to binary trait, defined as 1: If SCC≤ 200,000, and 2: Otherwise. The CART (Classification And Regression Tree) algorithm for classification trees, with GINI index and Entropy function as the division criteria, was used to develop the tree. Statistical analysis was performed using ‘rpart’ package in R software. The constructed tree had 12 leaves and it was 6 levels deep. The results of classification tree procedure for ranking of importance of the variables responsible for the variation in SCC were, respectively, parity, test-day milk production, year of calving, season of calving, and days in milk (stage of lactation). Based on the obtained classification tree, different combination of variables associated with SCC could be identified. According to the classification tree, the lowest amount of SCC was expected in the group of cows that were in the 1st or 2nd parity; their test-day milk production was > 30 kg; they were calved from year 2004 to 2013; and their calving season was autumn or winter.

Twenty Barki goats were used for evaluating the effects of oral administration of Selenium Yeast Plus vitamin E (SYPE) on rumen fermentation, milk production, feed digestibility, blood parameters and resistance to parasites. Goats were randomly divided into two groups of ten animals, control group without any treatment and treated group with 100 mg of SYPE between days 14 prepartum and 49 postpartum. Rumen fluid and faecal and blood samples were collected on days 7, 21, 35, and 49 after kidding, milk yield was determined biweekly. During the last week of the experiment, daily fresh faecal grab samples were obtained from each animal. Feed and faeces Acid Insoluble Ash (AIA) contents were used as an internal marker to estimate the apparent digestibility coefficients. Administration of SYPE enhanced (P≤ 0.001) total Short Chain Fatty Acids (SCFAs) production especially propionic acid compared to the control. Ammonia N concentration was lower (P≤ 0.036) for SYPE than for the control. Higher milk yield (P≤ 0.001) and protein and lactose percentages were found (P≤ 0.05) in SYPE than in the control group. Digestibility of organic matter, ether extract, neutral detergent fiber, acid detergent fiber and hemicelluloses were higher (P< 0.05) in SYPE than that in the control. Increased serum globulin (P≤ 0.05), glucose (P≤ 0.001) and total cholesterol (P≤ 0.05) by SYPE were found. Selenium yeast plus vitamin E decreased (P≤ 0.05) the faecal egg count compared to the control. Administration of SYPE supported positively the rumen fermentation as was evidenced from the increased milk production, improved nutrients digestibility and the apparent health statues achieved for lactating goats.

Date press cake is a by-product of date fruit juicing that has remained underutilized in the food industry. This is mostly due to the lack of information and technical knowledge about its chemical composition, nutritional value, health benefits and possible effects on the quality of food products upon inclusion. The main aim of this research was to determine the chemical composition, bioactive compounds and functional properties of date press cake to promote its food applications as an economical and available functional ingredient. The research was carried out on ground date press cake obtained from Shahani dates with two particle sizes of 355 µm (coarse) and 167 µm (fine). On average, Shahani date press cake contained 13.37% moisture, 4.92% fat, 6.35% protein, 11.74% crude fiber and 79.06% carbohydrate. Fructose was the main simple sugar, magnesium was the major mineral, oleic acid was the predominant fatty acid, and phenolic compounds were the main antioxidant. The chemical composition and functional properties of the date press cake were affected by its particle size. The coarse sample had lower fibre, oleic acid, total phenolic and flavonoid content and antioxidant activity than the fine sample. However, the fine sample had higher sugar and fat content and exhibited higher water holding capacity and solubility than the coarse sample.

Dairy factories produce high volume of sludge from bactofuge and separator. Meantime, global demand for the proteases is increasing. Recently, utilization and conversion of the waste materials into value added product is a sustainable process. The objective of this study was to investigate the potential of bactofuge and separator sludge to produce alkaline protease enzymes. Total viable aerobic and anaerobic counts were determined on Plate Count Agar at 37 and 50ºC for both types of sludge. Lactobacillus count in MRS Agar plates corresponded to 3.12±0.25 log CFU mL-1 for sludge of bactofuge and 3.085±0.2 log CFU mL-1 for sludge of separator. Mold and yeast had population levels of 2.3±0.1 log CFU mL-1 for bactofuge and 2.08±0.1 log CFU mL-1 for separator. Proteolytic bacteria were isolated from dairy sludge using Skim Milk Agar media. A clear zone of Skim Milk hydrolysis indicated protease-producing organisms. Different cultural parameters (temperature, pH, thermal shock, and kind of sludge) were optimized for maximal enzyme production. Maximum proteolytic activity was observed at 37◦C (P< 0.05). Isolated alkaline protease producing Bacilli were identified by Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). The species were identified as Bacillus cereus strain zk2, Bacillus sp. cp-h71, Bacillus thuringiensis strain ILBB224, and Bacillus sp. Bac6D2.

Biomass is an important parameter in studying a variety of energetic processes in food webs, community structure, and composition of aquatic organisms. Biomass determinations are based on direct weighing of animals, biovolume determination, and length-weight conversion. Although direct weighing of individual organisms is the most accurate methodology, its application is not very common due to its time consuming nature. Length-weight regressions are the most widely used approach for estimating benthic invertebrate biomass because they are less time consuming and more precise than other methods. In this research, length-weight relationships are evaluated for the most common benthic invertebrates found in an Iranian mountain river in the Southern Caspian Sea Basin by fitting the power function (linearized by logarithmic transformation) to data of wet and dry weights against body length of aquatic invertebrates at both family and order level. A general predictive equation was also obtained for all individuals measured in this study. Regressions obtained were significant at a P value of < 0.05 and explained a high proportion of variation of the dependent variable, as expressed by the correlation coefficient (r= 0.82-0.99). Regression equations obtained in this study for three major orders of aquatic invertebrates were also compared to those in previous studies from different geographical locations. Relationships developed in this study, can be useful for future assessments of benthic community structure and for understanding the importance of these invertebrates in the energy flux of the river.

The spatial and temporal heterogeneity of throughfall (TF) have important ecological impacts in forest ecosystems. The aim of this study was to quantify spatio-temporal variability of TF and to evaluate the effects of canopy traits and gross rainfall (GR) characteristics on TF at the event scale. Event-based measurements were carried out from September 2015 to October 2017 during the leafed-out period in a natural uneven-aged beech (Fagus orientalis L.) stand located in the Hyrcanian forest of Iran. Leaf area index (LAI) and canopy openness of the stand were 6 m2 m-2 and 6.2%, respectively. Tree density in the studied plot was 188 tree ha-1 and the basal area (BA) was 51 m2 ha-1. During the measurement period, 25 rainfall events occurred (total rainfall= 784.8 mm). We observed variability of TF under the beech trees canopy in different GR classes (< 15, 15-30, 30-50 and > 50 mm). Increases in rainfall depth and intensity were associated with an increase in TF depth and decrease in TF variability. We found that rainfall depth along with the intensity were the most influential factors on the TF depth, spatial variability as well as time stability. Knowledge of the spatial persistence and variability of TF would help managers to optimize the management of these stands in terms of soil water and nutrition availability.

Diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella) is a serious pest of cruciferous vegetables worldwide. In Iran, it is commonly controlled by using chlorpyrifos. Due to a range of biochemical and behavioral features, this pest can rapidly develop resistance to many insecticides from different groups. To achieve a better resistance management plan, a chlorpyrifos resistant strain of P. xylostella was selected under laboratory conditions and its cross resistance to five other insecticides and resistance characteristics were investigated. After 15 generations of selection, the selected strain (CLRS) developed 39.61-fold higher resistance to chlorpyrifos in comparison with susceptible strain (AL). CLRS exhibited 19.62-, 17.84-, 3.43- and 3.33-fold cross resistance to hexaflumuron, indoxacarb, thiodicarb and flubendiamide, respectively, but showed no cross resistance to abamectin. Synergism and biochemical studies suggested potential involvement of Esterase (EST) in CLRS. However, no difference was seen for Glutahion-S-Transferase (GSTs) and Mixed Function Oxidase (MFO) in CLRS and AL strains. To determine the role of AcetylCholinEsterase (AChE) insensitivity in resistance mechanism, Kinetic parameters (Km and Vmax) and inhibitory effect of chlorpyrifos-oxon on this enzyme were evaluated. Affinities and hydrolyzing efficiencies of AChE in CLRS were higher than AL. This enzyme in CLRS was also less sensitive to inhibition by chlorpyrifos-oxon. Results indicated that chlorpyrifos resistance exhibited cross resistance to other insecticides from different classes and enhanced EST activity and AChE insensitivity were probably the main factors in chlorpyrifos resistance. These results can help the users of insecticides and can delay the resistance development of P. xylostella.

Species of the genus Opius Wesmael, 1835 (Hym.: Braconidae, Opiinae) was faunistically studied in northern provinces of Iran. Malaise traps were used to obtain adult specimens from various habitats during 2010–2011. A total of 17 species, belonging to 12 subgenera, were identified, of which six species including O. (Hypocynodus) larissa Fischer, 1968; O. (Allotypus) saevus Haliday, 1837; O. (Merotrachys) schmidti Fischer, 1960; O. (Misophthora) pulicariae Fischer, 1969; O. (Thoracosema) repentinus Papp, 1980; and O. (Nosopaeopius) ochrogaster Wesmael, 1835 were recorded for the first time from Iran. A key for identification of the collected species is provided.

Haze stress has various destructive physical, chemical and physiological effects on the plants. Cold plasma treatment is recognized as a suitable technology to improve germination efficiency of numerous seeds. This study was carried out to evaluate the effect of cold plasma in order to reduce harmful effects of haze on winter wheat (Pishgam cultivar) in the greenhouse. Seeds of wheat were treated with cold air plasma at 50W during different time intervals of 60, 120, 180 and 240 seconds. In the greenhouse, simulation of haze stress with concentration of 1500 μg m-3 was performed at 13, 49, 61 and 69 Zadoks scales at agricultural research greenhouse of Tarbiat Modares University. Effects of plasma treatments on quality and quantity of wheat were determined by the rate of photosynthesis, leaf stomatal density, size of stomata, intercellular CO2 concentration, transpiration rate, chlorophyll content, Relative Water Content (RWC), stomatal conductance, spike yield, and grain yield. Results indicated a significant difference among plasma treatments and the control. Plasma treatment in 180 seconds ameliorated photosynthesis rate, chlorophyll content, and stomatal conductance by 34, 32, and 93%, respectively, compared with the control. In response to haze stress in plasma treatments at 180s plasma treatment, grain and spike yield were increased by 58 and 75%, respectively, compared with the control plants. The results showed that plasma treatments reduced damage of haze stress on winter wheat.

The objectives of this study were to determine if Selenium (Se) in the forms of Se (IV) and Se (VI) interact during uptake and assimilation by spinach plants (Spinacia oleracea L.), when they are applied together. That might affect selected physiological and morphological characteristics, and crop yield. Plants were foliar sprayed with different concentrations of Se as selenite and selenate, separately (each at the rate of 5, 10, 15 mg Se L-1), and simultaneously with selenite plus selenate (each at the rate of 5 mg Se L-1). Se accumulation in the spinach leaves was monitored, along with selected physiological and morphological characteristics. These foliar Se treatments had little or no effects on crop yield, content of photosynthetic pigments and UVA and UVB absorbing compounds, respiratory potential and plant biomass, and potential efficiency of photosystem II. This demonstrated the good conditions of the spinach plants under these foliar Se treatments. The spinach plants readily accumulated both forms of Se into the leaves. Direct comparison of their combined application (5+5 mg L-1) with their individual applications (10 mg L-1) showed that in the combined application, the plants accumulated Se more than in selenite alone treatment, but less Se than in the selenate alone treatment. Foliar spraying with all tested concentrations of selenite, selenate, or their combination ensured that spinach leaves were safe for use in human nutrition. According to our results, exogenous treatment with selenate in concentration of 15 mg L-1 was the most efficient treatment for production of Se enriched spinach.

Vineyards are intensively managed with machinery, leading to negative impacts on soil compaction and moisture, which can decrease grape productivity and quality. However, there is a lack of investigations at the Pedon scale related to the spatio-temporal distribution of soil compaction in vineyards .The aim of the study was to quantify the impacts of tractor traffic passes on Bulk Density(BD) and Soil Water Content (SWC), in a Croatian vineyard. Soil properties were measured at different depths (0-10, 10-20 and 20-30 cm), seasons (before, during and after summer), and at three different zones subject to different management actions: Grass Covered inter-row (GC), Tilled inter-row (T) and tilled row (R). The main effects of tractor traffic passes were found at the 0-10 cm soil depth. Soil BD was significantly higher after summer than before and during summer. At 0-10 cm, SWC was significantly lower during summer than before and after. At 10-20 and 20-30 cm depths, SWC was higher in all zones, showing no significant differences between them at each depth. Significant positive correlations between BD and SWC were identified in the T zone after summer, although increased traffic decreased the SWC. Wheel traffic increased BD, which we can attribute to the high SWC. Nevertheless, this increase was agronomically not relevant. Such findings should be considered in order to control soil compaction in vineyards through environmentally-friendly soil management practices.