مجله تحقیقات گیاهان دارویی و معطر ایران
سال سی و پنجم شماره 5 (پیاپی 97، آذر و دی 1398)

In order to study the effect of water deficit and foliar application of salicylic acid and spermine on the phenological stages and caffeic acid derivatives yield of Echinacea purpurea L., a three replicated split- plot experiment was conducted based on a randomized complete block design during 2016 and 2017 growing seasons at the research field of Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands, Iran. In this experiment, three irrigation regimes (irrigation after 20, 40 and 60% depletion of soil available water) were accommodated in main plots and salicylic acid (SA) and spermine (SPM) spray treatments (Control (no spray), spray at five levels of 75 mg/l SA, 150 mg/l SA, 75 mg/l SPM, 75 mg/l SA+75 mg/l SPM and 150 mg/l SA+75 mg/l SPM) were considered in subplots. The exogenous SA and SPM were applied on the foliage at two steps, 10-days apart and at the beginning of stem elongation stage. The effects of irrigation regime and spray treatments were significant on the traits studied. Drought stress decreased the number of days to phenological stages, the yield of echinacoside and cynarin in flower and cichoric acid, and caftaric acid and cynarin in leaves, but increased the yield of chlorogenic acid in flowers and caffeic acid derivatives (cichoric acid, echinacoside, chlorogenic acid, caftaric acid and cynarin) in roots. The foliar application of salicylic acid and spermine increased all studied traits. The interaction between water deficit and foliar spray was significant on the yield of caffeic acid derivatives in roots. The highest yield of cichoric acid (9.49 kg/ha), echinacoside (0.67 kg/ha), chlorogenic acid (0.26 kg/ha), caftaric acid (7.31 kg/ha) and cynarin (0.27 kg/ha) in roots was obtained at irrigation after 60% depletion of soil available water and simultaneous application of high concentrations of SA and SPM. Based on the results of the present study, the foliar application of SA and SPM improved the yield of caffeic acid derivatives in coneflower under both normal and water stress conditions.

Fenugreek (Trigonella L.) is one of the most important and oldest known medicinal plants in the world, used in the treatment of many diseases due to its various secondary metabolites. The plant has more than 135 species growing throughout the world and in most climates. Trigonelline is the most important and most abundant alkaloid and one of the valuable metabolites found in fenugreek that is used to treat diabetes and reduce blood lipids. In this research, 22 genotypes from 10 species of fenugreek including: T. uncata, T. monantha, T. persica, T. anguina, T. stellate, T. spruneriana, T. astroites, T. monspeliaca, T. tehranica and T. foenum-graecum were collected from Khuzestan, Tehran, and Hormozgan provinces and their trigonelline levels were measured using HPLC technique. The results showed that T. foenum-graecum and T. tehranica had higher trigonelline content (1.34 and 0.9 mg/g seed, respectively) than other species. Also, there was a significant difference between genotypes for trigonelline content. The clustering based on Ward’s method separated genotypes into two groups. This study could be the basis for further work on the extraction of pharmaceutical compounds from other fenugreek species, especially native species of Iran such as T. tehranica.

Using stimulants is an efficient way to increase the production of secondary metabolites of medicinal plants under in vivo and in vitro conditions. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of NaCl (0 and 50 mM), salicylic acid, and methyl jasmonate (each in 0 and 100 μM) in solid and liquid culture media on the biochemical properties and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) activity of stevia callus under in vitro conditions. This study was conducted in a completely randomized design with a two-factor factorial arrangement in four replications. The stimuli used, culture medium and their interactions had a significant effect on the measured traits. The highest amount of phenol and flavonoid production was observed in salicylic acid 100 + salinity 50 and salinity 50 treatments in solid culture medium. Treatments including salinity 50, salicylic acid 100 + salinity 50 and methyl jasmonate 100 + salinity 50 in the solid medium increased PAL enzyme activity compared to other treatments. PAL enzyme, phenol and flavonoid were positively correlated each other. The 50 mM salinity treatment also increased proline amino acid content. Therefore, in order to improve the production of secondary compounds such as phenol, flavonoids and also PAL enzyme activity in stevia, a combination of salicylic acid (100 μM) and salinity (50 mM) is recommended under solid culture medium conditions.

The genus Artemisia comprises a large number of species, some of which are cultivated commercially in a variety of applications. The high accumulation of essential oils and other terpenoids in certain members of family Asteraceae, such as wormwood (Artemisia absinthium L.), has made them useful as flavorings. Terpenoids and phenolic compounds are also responsible for the medicinal and medical values of many members of this family. The solid-phase microextraction (SPME) is a fast, easy, efficient, highly solvent-free, and easy-to-automate method. In the present study, headspace SPME (HS-SPME) using nanostructured layered double hydroxide coated fiber in combination with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was utilized as a monitoring technique for the collection and detection of essential oil constituents of wormwood. Experimental parameters including temperature and desorption time, temperature and extraction time, sample weight, and water content effect were tested and optimized. A temperature of 260 °C was found to be appropriate for efficient desorption. The best desorption time was obtained 2 min for all measurements. The optimized quantities were found for extraction temperature 75 °C, extraction time 25 min, sample weight 2.5 g. The added water deactivated the fiber surface by blocking the active sites; therefore, the proposed fiber is suitable for dry samples. The proposed method is simple and costly compared to conventional methods of analysis. In addition, in this method, the analysis time is shorter and could be used for the analysis of volatile compounds in medicinal plants.

In addition to the stigma, other parts of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) flower including petals, as by-products of the saffron production process, contain bioactive and antioxidant compounds that are usually left unused. This experiment was conducted at the research field of Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman, Iran, to increase the productivity of this crop as well as investigate the variation in corm origin in terms of flower yield and bioactive compounds of saffron petals. In this regard, different corms from nine different regions of Iran (Bajestan, Estahban, Ferdows, Gonabad, Natanz, Qaen, Sarayan, Torbate-Heydarieh and Zarand) were evaluated during the three growing seasons of 2015-16, 2016-17 and 2017-18. Based on the results, phenolic compounds ranged from 2.83 to 5.24 mg gallic acid/g dry weight and flavonoid compounds ranged from 0.38 to 1.81 mg quercetin/g dry weight in petals. The results also demonstrated that flower-related traits, bioactive compounds and radical scavenging activity were significantly affected by the growing season, corm origin and their interaction. In all the traits studied (except reducing power ability), corms of different origins showed different responses to the growing season. The highest yield was obtained from the corms of Ferdows in the first and third growing seasons and Bajestan in the second growing season. The corms of Bajestan and Gonabad (the highest phenolic and flavonoid contents) and Estahban (the least phenolic and flavonoid contents) showed, respectively, the highest (216 and 217 mg/L, respectively) and lowest antiradical activity in 2016-17 growing season. The corms of Ferdows, Sarayan, Bajestan, and Gonabad origin based on high yield and bioactive compounds content, Qaen and Estahban due to low bioactive compounds content and antioxidant activity, and Natanz, Torbate-Heydarieh and Zarand with the lowest flower production were grouped into three main clusters according to cluster and principal component analyses.

This study was carried out to investigate different soil fertility management on morphological traits, essential oil yield and quality of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill) forage. The experiment was conducted as a randomized complete block design with three replications at the Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands. The experimental treatments included five fertilizer levels (chemical, biological, vermicompost, 75% and 50% concentration of chemical fertilizers + bio-fertilizers + vermicompost). The results indicated the significant effects of different fertilizer treatments on the traits studied. Accordingly, the treatment of 75% chemical fertilizers with biofertilizers and vermicompost improved morphological characteristics, essential oil yield, and quantitative and qualitative yield of forage, recognized as superior treatment. The above mentioned treatment had the highest plant height (95 cm), shoot dry weight (98 g m-2), biological yield (1191.6 kg ha-1), seed yield (138 kg ha-1), and harvest index (11.6%). The highest and lowest percentage and essential oil yield were related to 75% chemical fertilizers+biofertilizers+vermicompost (about 3% and 18 kg ha-1) and 100% chemical fertilizers treatment (about 2% and 13 kg ha-1), respectively. The highest amount of important forage qualitative traits such as digestible dry matter (%), water soluble sugars (%) and ash content was obtained in 75% chemical fertilizers with biofertilizers and vermicompost treatment. While the above mentioned traits had the lowest amount in the application of 100% of chemical fertilizers, compared to other treatments. In addition, forage quality-reducing factors such as neutral and acidic insoluble fiber had the highest values in this treatment. It seems that in order to achieve sustainable agriculture and optimize the organic production of medicinal plants, the reduced concentrations of chemical fertilizers along with bio-resources can reduce environmental pollution in addition to economic production.

Summer savory (Satureja hortensisL.) is a fragrant herb in the Lamiaceae family with many medicinal properties. Today, urea fertilizer is used for growing this plant which has a great impact on its performance. However, the unnecessary use of urea fertilizer threatens consumer health. Therefore, in this research, the harvested savory plants were classified based on the amount of urea consumed by an olfactory machine. The urea was added to soil at four levels (0, 50, 100 and 150 kg ha-1). Plants were grown in experimental plots under greenhouse conditions. The fragrance of the samples was evaluated using the electronic nose system. In order to optimize the output signals of the electronic nose, the data were normalized by the fractional method. Principal component analysis (PCA) and artificial neural network (ANN) were used respectively to combine the features and classifying them. Based on the results, TGS822 sensorshowed the best response in the range of urea fertilizer tested. Based on the results of PCA, PC1 and PC2 accounted for 93% of the variance. Also, the confusion matrix showed a 100% correct classification rate by the best ANN structure.

Saffron is one of the special agricultural products of Iran and due to its high price in non-oil exports has a special place. In this study, the structure of saffron market during 2001 to 2018 in different packaging and market power of Iran in target countries compared to competitors was investigated using Hierpindal-Hirschman index, and prioritization of target countries of Iran based on market continuity indices, average price (dollar), average import share of target country, price fluctuation coefficient and target country import share fluctuation coefficient were determined using numerical taxonomy approach. The results showed that the saffron market was between open oligopoly and closed oligopoly during 2001 to 2018. Also, the results of prioritization of saffron exports in packages of less than 10 grams indicated that Norway, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Spain were ranked one to three. The results of the prioritization of the saffron packaging in 10 to 30 gram packages showed that the best target markets were UAE, Spain and Saudi Arabia. Considering the prioritization results of the target countries in different tariff codes, it is suggested to use preferential and bilateral agreements on the marketing of saffron in countries prioritized in each tariff code (see the results) to be prepared to change the export pattern and reach the proposed  pattern.

To investigate the effect of planting density on quantitative and qualitative characteristics of globe artichoke (Cynara cardunculus L. var. Scolymus (L.) Fiori) under weedy and weed-free conditions, a field experiment was conducted at Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran in 2016 growing season. A factorial arrangement of the experimental treatments was studied in a randomized complete block design with three replications. The factors included four crop planting densities (2, 4, 6 and 8 plants m-2) under two conditions of presence and absence of weeds. Different traits including leaf number per plant, leaf area index, total dry weight, chlorophylls a, b and total chlorophyll, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid and total polyphenol contents were measured. The results showed that leaf number and dry weight were significantly affected by plant density and weed competition in artichoke, so that the weed competition reduced the artichoke dry weight by 22.4%. The highest leaf area index (2.29) and dry weight of artichoke (253.44 g m-2) were observed at 6 plants m-2, while the highest number of leaves per plant (16.33) belonged to the density of 2 plants m-2. Among qualitative traits chlorophylls a, b and total chlorophyll were only affected by weed presence while caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid and total polyphenol contents were only affected by plant density. The effect of crop plant density on weed leaf area and dry weight was also significant. Overall, the highest performance of the main secondary metabolites in artichoke including caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid and total polyphenol (5.99, 9.55 and 5.89 g m-2, respectively) were obtained at 6 plants m-2, completely affected by crop dry matter yield.

Though chemical fertilizers increase crop production, their long-term use causes soil compaction and decreased fertility, increased air and water pollution, as well as increased greenhouse gases emission, ultimately leading to serious damage to human health and the environment. A greenhouse experiment was conducted during 2018 to evaluate the effects of chemical and bio-fertilizers on the quality and quantity of Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) in a randomized complete block design with four treatments. The experimental treatments included chemical fertilizer (NPK), seaweed extract, humic acid, and control (without fertilizer) with five replications. The results showed that the treatments had a significant effect on most of the traits. The highest plant height, plant dry weight, number of umbels per plant, number of seeds per plant, 1000 seed weight, number of primary branches, chlorophyll content, leaf carotenoid content, and essential oil content were obtained in the plants treated with chemical fertilizer as well as seaweed extract. The highest plant fresh weight was obtained from chemical fertilizer treatment, and the highest number of secondary branches (9.08) and linalool percentage (61.32%) were obtained from the seaweed extract treatment. The results indicated that the seaweed extract could be a good replacement for chemical fertilizers in coriander.

Due to the economic importance of stored product pests and disadvantages of chemical insecticides, in this study, the repellency and oviposition deterrency effect of garlic and pepper extract (Tondexir®) and powder was investigated on Plodia interpunctella Hubner (Lep.: Pyralidae). The repellency effect of different concentrations of tondexir (1, 5, 10, 15 and 20%) and garlic and pepper powders was evaluated using Y-shaped olfactometeron adult insects and fourth larval instars, and using leaky glass and petri dish methods on first larval instars, in addition to evaluating the oviposition deterrency effect of these compounds on adult insects. The results showed that 20% concentration of tondexir and garlic powder had the highest repellency effect (63.97% and 58.90%, respectively) on adult insects. The repellency effect of treatments on fourth larval instars was less than that of adult insects. Garlic powder and 20% concentration of tondexir had the highest repellency effect (57.5% and 40%, respectively) on fourth larval instars. Pepper powder showed the highest repellency rate (82.5%) on first larval instars in leaky glass method. The petri dish method had the lowest repellency rate and its highest rate (67.5%) was observed at 20% concentration of tondexir. The highest oviposition deterrency effect of adult insects was related to garlic powder (47.89%) and 20% concentration of tondexir (47.65%). The results of the present study indicated the efficacy of garlic and pepper extract and powder in repelling and the oviposition deterrency of P. interpunctella.

In order to investigate the effects of different irrigation regimes and different fertilizer compositions on the yield indices and elements in peppermint (Mentha piperita L.), a factorial experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design with three replications at the research greenhouse of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, during the growing season 2017-2018. Factors were consisted of irrigation regime at three levels including 100% FC, 75% FC and 50% FC, and fertilizer at five levels including 1-chemical fertilizer (NPK)+bacterial biofertilizer (NPP), 2- NPP, 3-NPK, 4-micronutrient fertilizer (MIC), 5-MIC + amino acid fertilizer (AP). In this experiment, dry weight, plant height, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, protein, SPAD number, essential oil content and yield were measured. The results of analysis of variance showed that irrigation regimes and different fertilizers had significant effects on dry weight, nitrogen, phosphorus, protein and essential oil content at 1% level and on SPAD number at 5% level. The highest dry weight (14.56 g) and phosphorus (0.43%) were observed in 100% FC treatment and the highest nitrogen (2.001%), protein (12.51%), SPAD number (45.3) and potassium (1.66%) were obtained in NPK+NPP fertilizer. Also, the highest essential oil content (1.64%) was measured in 50% FC treatment. The results of this study showed that under severe drought conditions, utilization of bacterial and chemical fertilizers combinations make growth and physiological characteristics of peppermint less affected by drought stress.

In order to investigate the effects of infrared radiation intensity and air velocity on some of the qualitative characteristics of hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis L.) during the drying process, a factorial experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design with three replications. The infrared radiation intensity was investigated at three levels of 0.2, 0.3 and 0.5 W/cm2 and the air flow velocity at 0.5, 1 and 1.5 m/s, and traits such as color parameters, essential oil content and composition were evaluated. The results showed a significant effect of treatments on all studied traits. In the radiation intensity of 0.3 W/cm2, with increasing air flow velocity, there was a significant increase in the desired color parameters such as brightness index (L), green color (a) and color purity (chroma). Generally, the color of samples was better maintained at lower radiation intensities. The essential oil content of dried samples in the intensity of 0.2 and 0.3 W/cm2 was about 0.2% higher than the radiation intensity of 0.5 W/cm2. Increasing the air flow velocity at low radiation intensities reduced the essential oil percentage, but in 0.5 W/cm2, the essential oil content increased by 0.17% with increasing the air flow velocity. The amount of cis-Pinocamphone in the essential oil of treated samples with a low-intensity infrared radiation was higher than the high-intensity treated ones, so that the amount of this component in 0.2 W/cm2 was 3.5 to 18.9% more than 0.5 W/cm2. Overall, the results of this study showed that the use of low infrared radiation intensity in drying process of hyssop could preserve leaves color parameters along with the essential oil content and its main components.