مجله زبان و ادبیات فارسی
پیاپی 87 (پاییز و زمستان 1398)

One of the Prose styles of the contemporary world is focused on the reflection of the outer world on the world of the story. This is widely used in the works of realist and naturalist Iranian writers. Sadegh Chubak, one of the prominent contemporary writers, has achieved a unique language by presenting the reality in his artistic prose. The aim of this research is to analyze the process of creating the meaning of reality in paradigmatic and syntagmatic axes. By an analytical-critical method and with the help of relevant theoreticians in this field, the author has analyzed Chubak’s realist-naturalist prose to highlight the features of naturalism in his prose as an artistic style of writing. It is concluded that Chubak’s writing is artistic and is far and beyond the hackneyed referential prose styles usually associated with naturalism.

Qotol-al-Qolob is an organismic and rich text that has been very effective in stabilizing the Sufist discourse. This is because of the flow of Sufism articulated in the late second century in the context of religion and passed through contradictory discourses such as jurisprudence, theology, and philosophy and then emerged in a period that radical rationalism, jurisprudential controversy, philosophical conflicts as well as political and social quarrels spead over the entire Islamic world. The ideologues of Sufism highlighted absent and separated propositions with the help of the logic of discursive difference and by studying and recognizing dominant approaches. They were gradually able to successfully integrate and dominate the Sufist discourse. This is visualized in Qotol-al-Qolob which we consider to be the confluence of two scholarly and insightful discourses. To achieve this important point we use the method and discourse analysis of La Clau and Mouffe and we show how Abutaleb Makki could renovate the absent, excluded, and depleted propositions of the jurisprudential discourse by the use of interpretation model.

Linguistic combinations are referred to as a chain of words that associate with one another and form a semantic phrases, such as adjectival and noun. Innovation in this field is one of the main tasks of creative poetry. Shams's sonnets are of the prominent works of Persian literature and their composition is characterized by its stylistic features. In order to express his sublime and mystical thought, Molana has created hundreds of neologisms and used a variety of norms to widen the bottleneck of the vocabulary or to avoid duplicate words and combinations. Among his works, Shams's sonnets are great examples of the fusion of thoughts. In the texts of his sonnets, there are hundreds of fresh adjective phrases such as "Perverted Thought", "Fantasy Imagination", "Golden Excuses" or noun phrases like "Mobs of Fancy", " World of Colors and Smells", “Farm of Heart” that require analysis. Rumi's innovations are not limited to this and different types of new structures are found in his nominative, adjectival, adverbial and verbal phrases and combinations, but this article deals only with this type of innovation. The findings show that Rumi created new and exquisite allusions and metaphors in Farsi using these combinations. And in addition to empowering the language by avoiding the use of repetitive combinations and words, Molana has added to its appeal and has portrayed his inimitable ideas in the form of language.

Heroism is one of the main themes in popular Persian prose stories. The hero in these stories has characteristics that generally belong to the mythical beliefs and traditions of pre-Islamic and post-Islamic Iran. Many historical and social factors are important in the transmission of these traditions and beliefs but one of the most important ones is Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh. In many cases, the actions and characteristics of the hero in the Shahnameh can be considered to be the prototype of the hero in popular Persian prose stories. In this study, by examining four heroic prose works of Persian folklore, each belonging to a specific era, we identify and compare the heroic, political, and social characteristics of the hero-pahlavan and his comparison with the Shahnameh. The results of this research are as follows: Despite the formation of these works in the historical centuries, the hero has retained many of the mythical and epic features of the Shahnameh. Some of these actions and features are perfectly in line with the mythical and epic examples of the Shahnameh, and the narrators and writers have attempted to match the Pahlavans of popular literature with the Shahnameh. In some cases, despite similarities, there are differences between these actions and characteristics. The differences have often been due to the heroic ethics and some of the heroic and social political and social practices that result from the intellectual and cultural situation of the era of popular literature and the changes and transformations of the Ayyari system. Most of similarities can be seen in terms of appearance, combat power, type of birth, upbringing, growth stages, and the ideal years of the heroic.

Simile and allusion are two rhetorical aspects that have been taken into consideration by the scholars of rhetoric since long time ago. Some of the Iranian poets have used the capacities of the Persian language and integrated these aspects to create a modern rhetoric which in this study is introduced as rhetorical simile. The objective of the present study is the investigation of this rhetoric in 1340s poems and some of early 1350s works of Shafiee Kadkani. For this purpose, “a mirror for sounds” including “whispers”, “night reading”, “from the leaf”, “in the garden alleys of Neishabour”, “like a tree in a rainy night”, “from existence and singing”, and “Booye jooye moolian” are studied. The objective of this study is to introduce the features of this rhetoric such as defamiliarization, highlighting, succinctness, non-translatability, validity, and assigning them to Farsi, which is done in Persian literature for the first time. Introducing the implicit relationship of these similes and the themes of Shafiee Kadkani as well as his capability in employing the rhetoric constitute another objective of this study is investigating the use of descriptive and analytical method and content analysis. Placing mythological, religious, mystical, and scientific personalities in these similes show the awareness of the poet regarding rhetoric. This justifies the frequency of such similes in his poems, his innovations, and observation of the semantic-thematic proportion of the poems with these rhetorical aspects.

There are hypotheses in the history of human culture and civilization in which we can find undeniable similarities and commonalities among them, despite their vastly different cultural and historical contexts. For example, finding commonalities between the language of two artistic aesthetic hypotheses, Sufism and Surrealism, which are very different from each other in terms of context, time as well as cultural and historical emergence, is so difficult. Our main issue in this paper is that there are undeniable similarities between these two hypotheses. This is done by means of a descriptive analytical method and comparative literature approach, particularly in American mode of it, whose aim is to study literature across the borders of given territory and research about the relation among literatures and any other epistemic areas such as art, history and philosophy. We found several common aspects between the languages of these two movements. For example, they use rebelliousness and innovative imagination, symbolism, dream, subconscious mind, love, satire, automatic writing, and madness. They also both guide humans to what is superior and profound.

Literature includes comprehensive areas and covers various topics and issues. It relates to the numerous studies and we can use different methods for analyzing and studying it. In other words, most of the issues of literature are “multi-ethnic” and have been firmly rooted in diverse sciences such as psychology. The concept of spiritual intelligence is encountered with the issues followed by meanings and values that because of them our intelligence will be shaped in a more enriched context and background of meanings. Although the term “spiritual intelligence” is not considered to be one of achievements in the area of mysticism and it is discussed in the field of psychology, it does not mean that this issue is totally abandoned in mystical works. To be fair, concepts related to spiritual intelligence and their equivalents are represented broadly and fruitfully in our mystical literature. The elements of religion and spirituality, especially spiritual intelligence, are of great significance in the era of mystical poem in Persian literature and Rumi’s poetry. The present study is library-based with a descriptive-analytical method which indicates that faith, peace, altruism and its practice in life and also the tolerance of the adversities of real world, are the prominent elements of spiritual intelligence in Rumi’s Mathnavi.

The contemporary writer, Reza Barahani, has criticized the social and political structure of his society in his novel Ruzegar-e Duzaxi-ye Aghaye Ayaz. In Frankfurt school’s critical approach to art and literature the disapprobation of situation of society and the correction of internal contradictions of society is important, so we aim to study the novel due to theory of Herbert Marcuse and Theodor Adorno to show that Barahani has questioned the existing condition in society by referring to the problems of society. The most important component of the theory is that revolutionary art can criticize social realities in the best form and content because of its distance from the problems in society. The result shows us that Ruzegar-e Duzaxi-ye Aghaye Ayaz is revolutionary in both form and content.  Barahani’s novel has questioned and criticized all Iranians ruling powers up to that time and believes that the root of all the problems is despotism and silence of people in face it. Formally, this is one of the first works that has welcomed new forms and has been written in modern form.

One of the elements in Persian poetry and sonnets (Ghazal) is penname, which in addition to marking poetry in the name of the poet, sometimes has an amphiboly to another means; but in the poetry of poets such as Hafez - which have a special and coherent intellectual system - in the form of a main metaphor or central metaphor, penname is involved in determining their intellectual system. In this article, Hafez's pennames are analyzed from the perspective of semantic components, such as the confrontation with the specific vocabulary, which are derived from Hafez’s intellectual and biological sensibilities, in the text of the poem. It concludes that his poetic name is also influenced by his language and thoughts; and by means of the meaningful capacity of some words, he serves the translation of the structure of thought and the semantic system of his poems; and also the penname, Hafiz, is in fact the central metaphor of his sonnets, and plays a central role in his intellectual and discursive system.

Simin Behbahani is one of the contemporary ingenious and efficacious poets. In her New-Sonnets (Nou-Ghazal), the frequency and variety of allusions are too many, so that the allusion is one of the most striking features of her poetic style. Accurate understanding of semantic capacities and structural concinnities of the word, which has allusive theme, depends on being familiar with meaning and concept of allusions on one side, and knowing the structure of allusions and methods of applying them on the other. Because of the importance and necessity of studying the methods and techniques making depth, affection, and intellectual, cultural and semantic development of allusions in order to better identify and understand the capabilities, elegances and semantic and structural measures of New-Sonnets of Simin Behbahani and the role of these factors in the creation of literary enjoyment, the main goal of this paper is to analyze the structure of allusion and also sorts of using it on the vertical axis of imaginations in New-Sonnets of Simin Behbahani. The results show that allusions used in poems of Simin Behbahani, have varieties in construction from single and complex words to the spread and vast allusions on the entirety of the vertical axis of Sonnets. Overall, in new-Sonnets of Simin Behbahani, the allusions are represented on the vertical axis in different kinds and methods such as parallel allusions, integrative allusions, comparison allusions, Molammah, structural allusions, debate allusions or allusive debate, incarnative allusions, etc. some of these methods especially in the vertical axis, are rare or unprecedented.

Paradox is one of the literary techniques in the poetry of the Safavid poets. Hazin-e Lahiji, like so many other poets of that age, employed this technique in his pursuit and showed that "unfamiliar meaning". Paradox is used in the poetry of Hazin-e Lahiji for the purpose of defamiliarization and exoticism. The poet in order to create new implications and subtle and insightful points and also to express mystical notions, Love, free thoughts and ethical arguments has used this literary figure. This article is comprised of some parts. At the beginning and in the theoretical section and literature review, Paradox is defined and its difference from other literary terms, and the state of this literary trope in literature and literary glossaries in the past and present have been discussed. In the practical part, the different kinds of paradox, such as verbal and semantic paradoxes, descriptive and relational compounds have been explained and the features of paradoxes in Hazin’s poetry and synesthesia as a kind of paradox have been discussed.

Communication includes all the ways that human beings can influence others. This involves not only speaking or writing, but also all human behavior in various ways, so there are two types of communicational signs that human beings use: verbal and non-verbal signs. In communication science, special attention has been paid to how non-verbal signs influence message transmission. The research has shown that a large proportion of messages are transmitted to others through non-verbal signs. In poetry, the poet uses both verbal and nonverbal signs to be more effective in relation to the audience, but often in the analysis of poetry, the focus is on the verbal signs. Mehdi Akhavan-Sales is one of the most remarkable poets of contemporary narrative poetry whose specific characteristic of his poetry makes it suitable to use the non-verbal signs. In this study, the use of non-verbal communicational signs has been discussed to answer the following questions: Which non-verbal signs did Mehdi Akhavan-Sales use in his poetic images? What induces non-verbal signs in his poetry? Is there a significant relationship between the signs of non-verbal communication and the dominant thought of Akhavan in his poems? This study shows that Akhavan transmitted some of the concepts and messages in his poetry by depicting non-verbal signs related to the eyes, hands, feet, head and neck, lips, mouths, etc. The frequency of using these signs is higher in poems that have narrative features. The messages conveyed by these signs are often sadness, fear, concern, anxiety, uncertainty, and despondency. The high frequency of false smiles and the frequent use of phonetic messages of silence indicate that duplicity, and improbity made his poetic atmosphere full of despair. The use of these signs shows that instead of explaining a feeling or trying to convey a message, he presents an effective poem to the audience in a succinct manner.