فصلنامه کهن نامه ادب پارسی
سال دهم شماره 2 (پیاپی 29، پاییز و زمستان 1398)

Conceptual metaphor theory, derived from cognitive linguistics, has been the focus of much attention in the last two decades by scholars, including Iranians. This theory has some weaknesses that can be refined by its critique and analysis. Lakoff and Johnson claim that metaphorical mapping always directed from the source domain to the target domaim, not vice versa. This article is intended to criticize and reinforce unidirectionality. We have found that, contrary to Lakoff and Johnson's view, metaphorical mapping is bidirectional, and as we organize and introduce the target domain through the source domain, we can also organize the source domain according to the target domain. But if we consider the Point of similarity that is ignored by Lakoff and Johnson, it cannot be said that two domains cannot be accommodated to express a concept or a Point of similarity. That is, by considering the pseudonym or the single concept, metaphorical mapping becomes unidirectionality, except in metaphors where the Point of similarity is as much a description of both domains.

After the formation of the first foundations of the rhetorical sciences, at a later stage, researchers in this field classified the different boundaries of this knowledge. The metaphor is one of the first realms that has always been the subject for researchers in this field, since the beginning of this science. When the rhetoric entered the classification stage, naturally, metaphor was no exception to this rule. The study of various rhetorical works in Arabic and Persian rhetoric shows that the classification of metaphor has passed different periods in Arabic and Persian rhetoric. his research has examined the evolution of the metaphor classification in Arabic and Persian rhetorical works from the earliest to the present day. Accordingly, three stages can be considered for categorization of metaphors in Arabic rhetorical works and six stages in Persian rhetorical works. The result of the research shows that the classification of works of Persian from the eleventh century has been fully influenced by the works of Sakkaki, Khatib Qazvini and Taftazani. However, some of the rhetorical works have made criticism of these classifications. In our day, some of the rhetorical works, while criticizing these categories, have considered the past categories to be useless and some researchers while criticizing these classifications, have added new issues to them his research has examined the evolution of the metaphor classification in Arabic and Persian rhetorical works from the earliest to the present day. Accordingly, three stages can be considered for categorization of metaphors in Arabic rhetorical works and six stages in Persian rhetorical works. The result of the research shows that the classification of works of Persian from the eleventh century has been fully influenced by the works of Sakkaki, Khatib Qazvini and Taftazani. However, some of the rhetorical works have made criticism of these classifications. In our day, some of the rhetorical works, while criticizing these categories, have considered the past categories to be useless and some researchers while criticizing these classifications, have added new issues to them This research has examined the evolution of the metaphor classification in Arabic and Persian rhetorical works from the earliest to the present day. Accordingly, three stages can be considered for categorization of metaphors in Arabic rhetoric works and six stages in Persian rhetorical works. The result of the research shows that the classification of works of Persian from the eleventh century have been fully influenced by the works of Sakkaki, Khatib Qazvini and Taftazani. However, some of the rhetorical works have made criticism of these classifications. In our day, some of the rhetorical works, while criticizing these categories, have considered the past categories to be useless and some researchers while criticizing these classifications, have added new issues to them.

chiasmus is a literary figur that has been used in Vedic texts, Old Iranian texts (Old Persian Inscriptions, Old Avesta and Young Avesta), and West Middle Iranian texts (Zoroasterian and Manichaen texts and inscriptions). Chiasmus is a reversal of grammatical structures in successive phrases or clauses. chiasmus has been compared with "tard-o-aks" and "Tašāboh-olatrāf" or "tasbīq" in Persian literature. "tard-o-aks" is an example of Chiasmus. Some of examples of "Tašāboh-olatrāf" can be regarded as Chiasmus. Chiasmus has been continued in Iranaian literature in Old, middle and new age (=persian literature),  although there is not the exact equivalent for that in Persian rhetoric.

Almost all of the panegyric poets of the 5th and 6th century AH in their poetry follow the fantasy of king, the national and religious hero. This fantasy which is the result of symbolic convergence of national and religious characters especially characters like Rostam and Heidar in post-Islamic Iranian worldview has become one of the main approaches to communicate with the court and to depict and describe the king in certain ways. In Iran this idealistic worldview begins with the national movements like Shu'ubiyya movement and the rise of Shia orientations among Iranians and eventually it leads to a shared fantasy between poets about the king which then according to religious beliefs was considered as the shadow of God and caliph of God on earth. This paper base on fantasy-theme criticism and base on analysis of frequency and intensity of common motifs in the poems of this period argues that the fantasy of king, the national and religious hero has brought about similar communicative patterns among poets and has shaped the panegyric poetry in Iran in certain ways. This analysis will show what communicative approaches have been used to address the court base on the shared fantasy.

The Gulistan of sa'di ,as one of the most important Persian prose texts, is richly textual in rhetorical and linguistic terms. In this research, various types of conditional structures ("if" and their belongings) and their rhetorical and semantic functions have been analyzed in the Gulistan. The main claim of the present research is that, firstly, the conditional propositions of the Gulistan are structurally diverse and, secondly, these statements played a significant semantic and rhetorical role in The Gulistan. To substantiate this claim, various conditional structures that used in The Gulistan have been structurally investigated, and then the rhetorical and semantic functions of each of these structures have been analyzed. The results of this research show that conditional propositions in The Gulistan are structurally and semantically rhetorical in 14 different models and have different rhetorical features such as simile, description, relevance, Obligation , etc.

Comparative literary studies seek to extend and deepen knowledge of literature in different fields by comparing and matching relationships, similarities and differences of literary achievements in different languages and countries. Therefore, in present research the issue of allusion which is one of the topics of rhetoric science has been investigated and compared in descriptive-analytical method in Persian and English rhetoric in three main topics including definition, types and function in order to find out what similarities and differences exist in these areas. The results of the research indicate that Persian rhetorical studies still have been loyal to traditional definition of allusion while in Western rhetoric, a new interdisciplinary definition has been achieved from a classical limited definition. In division of allusion types, Persian rhetoric is detail and content oriented while in English rhetoric because division is done based on a holistic, form and content oriented outlook, is more various and comprehensive. This has caused allusion application in western rhetoric to be more diverse and interdisciplinary

The theory of Conceptual Metaphors (CM) is one of the achievements of cognitive linguistics. This theory considers "metaphor" not merely as a rhetoric device but as a basic mechanism of human mind. According to this theory, the language system in whole – and even the thinking system in whole- is formed through the metaphoric mechanisms. Though this theory seems to be novel, there are claims that Islamic rhetoricians– specifically Jurjani- have already discovered the relationship between metaphor and the process of meaning formation. This has brought some of the researchers to the conclusion that the theory of CM is not a novel one and Jurjani must be regarded as the inventor of it. In this research we are going to assess the validity of this claim, trying to show how inattention to the epistemological roots of the theories may lead to the assumption of identicality between them. This theory, being one of the achievements of cognitive linguistics is bound to conform with the principles of the discipline, which are only recently discovered and are unprecedented in the entire history of western and eastern philosophy and there is no trace of them among the Islamic rhetoricians' positions. The present writing tries to show why these principles and foundations introduce a new angle to the concept of metaphor, and disregard to its epistemological foundations will lead to the novel points of the theory of conceptual metaphors remaining unheard.

This article attempts to prove that the rhetorical principles in muslim world should be compiled according to sources other than official rhetorical textbooks. One of these sources is Andarznama, which contains the main rhetotical principles of oral situations. In this article, we attempt to compile the speech-based rhetorical principles through comparing two treatises: Ptah-hutep maxims</em>, as the first extant rhetorical treatise, and Qabusnama</em> as the first Persian Andarznama which contains separate chapters on rhetoric and oratory. These principles are: 1- keeping silent 2- speaking in appropriate time 3- not overusing emotional words 4- speaking fluently and reflectively 5-always speaking the truth. Examining these principles shows not only the fundamental differences between text-based and speech-based rhetoric, but also proves the independence of Persian rhetoric from the greco-roman rhetorical tradition.

Exaggeration as one of the main devices of Indian style poetry is the subject of this article. The article examines methods of making exaggeration and the artistic role of hyperbole in Persian poetry at 11th century through the exaggerated themes, the techniques of exaggeration, and the artistic function of this manner. It also points to the alignment of the exaggerated style of the Persian poets with the aesthetics of exaggeration in Indian rhetoric. Although the exaggeration was the aesthetics erea between Persian poetry and Indian rhetoric, in Iran it became the focal point of opposition to the Indo-Persian poetry. Iranian critics and scholors have considered the exaggerations of imaginative poets to be the main cause of the decline of Persian poetry in the 11th and 12th centuries. While pointing to the theoretical foundations of exaggeration, the paper emphasizes that the style of exaggeration is consistent with the thin-minding and atomistic attitude, and that the Indo-Persian style without the element of exaggeration falls short of its nature.

The investigation on rhetorical works in Persian literature and researches on this field shows that researchers do not believe in an independent and certain aesthetic system in the research filed of Persian prose. While the case studies on prose texts demonstrates that not only this works have an independent and effective aesthetic system, but also this aesthetic system is parallel with the aim of prose texts that is transferring meaning from the author to the reader. The rhetoric of syntactic, as an independent rhetorical method, explains most of the rhetorical techniques used by the authors of prose literature works. this system has not been focused on because of not having priority over figurative language and oratory. This research is trying to concentrate on the aesthetic system of Siyar al-Muluk by Nizam al-Mulk as one of the most important prose texts in Persian literature through the analysis of chapters thirty nine and forty of the book. It also tries to show that this system is totally effective and also matches with the author's goal of writing this work. on the other hand, by analyzing the text from the field of figurative language and oratory, it will be shown that techniques of these fields do not play an important role in the aesthetic system of the work.

Linguist and literary theorist Abdul Qahir Jarjani is one of the greatest thinkers in the history of Arabic literature; his theories of rhetoric have been so elaborate that for centuries it has been used by researchers in this field as the most powerful and practical source of this science. Research studies conducted by contemporary Arab scholars in examining his views and theories show that his rhetorical ideas, especially those of order, are rooted in the legacy of Arab literature and Abdel Qahir is influenced by former scholars. In addition, the theory of order has overlaps with those raised by western scholars. However, western theories enjoy more complete and comprehensive forms.</span>

In this research, we have boldly attempted to examine in a holistic and purely literary way the metaphorical claim as one of the permissible variants, thereby relying on one of the theoretical foundations of the formalist theory which we consider to be the most reliable and useful method. Literature is the word, we used it a lot. The main purpose of our research is to identify and identify the true types of metaphors so that the target audience of Persian literary texts will be able to come out with the least rhetorical analysis of metaphors as safely as possible. Simply put, in this article, after addressing conceptual and structural concerns about metaphor and its variations in textbooks, we first begin without going into philosophical discussions and deep intellectual and imaginative texts, on the part where language is out of its true form. We have concentrated and virtualized, then analyzed the material from a metaphorical and non-metaphorical point of view, or a visual and perceptual imagination, and also expressed their advantages and disadvantages, and made suggestions in this regard. We have released.</span>

in this article we have tried to answer this question can the consideration of rhetorical aspects help the correction after confirming the state of the copy obtained from a good work and the record of their differences? what are the disadvantages of this attitude? that's why we have put together a unique institue for the correction texts &aspects of rhetoric and after explaining the basics of research, from the various rhetorical aspects, we selected the amphibology and tested the different works of the punster poets and we show that sometimes text editors &editors, due to the neglect of the industry mentioned, for some unknown reason, some of the meanings of the obscure margins are undermined.

Beauty of Demand is a literary expression and of present observation with the theme of need which has its particular audienc; and the poetic forms, as the lingual structures in expressing them, hold close strong connection to the efficiency of this literary figure. On one hand, choosing proper poetic form for expressing Beauty of Demand is counted as the most important factor of its connection with and effect on the audience; because the mentioned figures in the beginning, middle and end of the forms such as ode, combination, prey, rubai, sonnet and piece are used with various approaches, considering particular points. Thus, the poetic form as one of the aesthetic and effective elements of request in the poem's texture and that how Beauty of Demand is used in it, are of the aesthetic and artistic factors of this literary figure. Therefore, the composers of this article are to analytically and statistically review the time-series of the poetic forms of Beauty of Demand from its outset to the eighth century (lunar year), its position within the used formats, and its application level in any of those forms in each period.</span>