فصلنامه پژوهش حقوق خصوصی
پیاپی 29 (زمستان 1398)

legislators in both countries Afghanistan and Iran have provided that, happening unavoidable external event is a cause for non-responsibility that Force major is one type of the event. Now considering effect of the event on obligator’s responsibility and also natural difference between omission and positive obligations, we must to answer this, has the difference what effect on the destiny of the obligation and basis of non-responsibility. According to this, this paper by referring library resources and using analytic-description methods tries to specify the answer for the questions. By precise analyzing and general legal rules and jurisprudence, how the effect of the force major on breaking omission obligation is different than positive one and for this reason, the basis of non-responsibility is the removal of obligation and in result, lack of necessary conditions for establishing responsibility in contractual liability. also by happening the force major, the obligation is suspended or the contract is terminated. In this situation, by the basis, the consideration for none-performance of contract is claimable against where it is provided for delay in performance of the contract, if the force major take places.

Financiers usually enjoy various security devices for guarantee of the repayment of the principal and interest, among them one which is very prevalent, in particular in unsecured finance, is “negative pledge covenant”, according to which the borrower promises not to encumber his assets in favor of any other creditor. This clause purports to protect the financier, who is unsecured, vis-à-vis other creditors of the borrower, who have priority, upon enforcement of his claim out of the borrower's assets. Although this clause, which has various kinds, is basically binding inter partes, in some types, the so-called “affirmative negative pledges” might lead to security interests. The negative pledge clause is popular in corporate finance and not only the validity of this clause, but also its default remedies –in particular against third party creditors who have gained the security interests in borrower’ assets- would be rather illusory under Iranian law. The definition, legal nature, validity and default remedies of negative pledge clause are among the main issues which are examined elaborately in this article with a comparative study of English and Iranian law.

In civil law, option is one of the issues related to and discussed in deals and contracts. This means that Article 456 of the Civil Code provides that:» All types of options may be available in all transactions unless option of contract-meeting and animal and delayed payment of the price, which is for sale«, therefore that law has specified the option for transaction. In jurisprudence and law, the vast majority of writers, do not approve the option of termination in unilateral legal act, because in the unilateral legal act without option to termination, termination is illegitimacy, As well as the destruction is not entitled to terminate and some also claim consensus in this regard. However reasonably, there is no conflict with the option of termination and the nature of unilateral legal act. Therefore this is paper explains possibility or impossibility of option of condition in a unilateral legal act according to law and lawyers and jurists opinions; and consider possible and correct and valid the option of condition by ruling out other causes of its nullity.

Med-Arb is one of the hybrid and integrated dispute settlement mechanisms which embodies flexibility, non-judicial and negotiate-oriented benefits of "mediation" and finality advantage of "arbitration" simultaneously and in a single process. In this article, med-arb nature is identified through a comprehensive comparative legal study including major legal systems and procedural rules of leading dispute settlement institutions. Opportunities and challenges of adopting med-arb in terms of legal, economic and managerial perspectives is analyzed. Although this method provides parties with a huge flexibility, control over the process and great efficiency (in relation to other dispute settlement mechanisms), some serious challenges regarding enforcement of awards in international contracts exist. In light of International Commercial Arbitration Act of Iran and Civil Procedure Code (regarding domestic arbitration rules), in case that parties reach agreement in the first phase (mediation), it is not possible that mediator only serve as arbitrator so that be powered to change the mediation agreement into an arbitral award. However, if parties fail to reach agreement in the first phase and arbitration initiates accordingly, their settlement in this stage can be regarded as consent award and be subject to benefits of enforcement of international arbitration awards.

Foreign investment almost always has been made by legal entities which are recognized as investor in Iran's bilateral investment treaties (BITs) and these treaties extend their protection to them.  Paying due attention to provisions of BITs in on hand and certain features of Iran legal system such as old commercial code one may imagine that deficiencies resulted from the features probably cause certain legal problem for presence of the investors in Iran. This library oriented paper seeks to analysis fulfillment of Iran BITs with regard to private legal entities and to identify challenges may be faced by the entities when investing in Iran. It seems that Iran laws and regulations suffer from certain shortcomings which can be resolved by giving priority over provisions of BITs. Investors' concerns as to conformity of their behavior with Iran laws and regulations as a condition for enjoying legal and treaty protections justify the need of conducting such a research. In so doing we will focus on multiplicity of standard of determining nationality of companies, possibility of legal presence of sole-shareholder companies in Iran and the possibility of claim by locally registered companies against Iran in international arbitral tribunals.

Several views have been raised about the situation between couples in the Islamic Imams and Islamic Laws of Iran. Some jurists and lawyers believe that coupling between couples is reprehensible, and coupling is not a reason for not being able to refer. However, some jurists believe that pairedness is a reason for the impossibility of referring to hafa, and after the couple's hubs there is no possibility of referrals. .What is the point of view about the situation between couples? It is a question that can be argued that in the common life of couples is absolute, or is it bound by the implicit condition of durability? In the sense of being bound by the implicit condition of survival, the duration of the couple is that the couples, given the assumption of the continuity of the financial couple to their spouse, make the coexistence of the coin in absolute lifetime not absolute. For this reason, after a violent violation, you will be required to regain money. If we consider the attachment of the couple between the couples during a lifetime, there are other issues, including the reasons for the implicit condition of the couple's durability, the nature of the implicit condition of the durability of the couple, etc. We can explain this.

Lease is one of the most important legal relationships that, by its economic and social dimensions, has been a main concern for statesmen of any country. In Iran, since modern legislation, the question of how to regulate the relationships has been subject to ups and downs. Civil Code may be understood as a starting point based on the autonomy of will (supply and demand). Influenced by some evolutions, the lease gradually came to be a critical contract so that statesmen authorized themselves to intervene in leasing relationships. Looking at such lease Acts proves such interventionist trend. The trend, however, ceased to continue following Islamic revolution and by passing of the 1376 Act, it came back to its starting point (Civil Code). Such a turning fitted to the idea of market efficiency. This paper examines the said interventions on the idea of market efficiency first by reviewing the lease Acts in terms of interventionism and then by using economic theory, it examines some situations known as market failures and shows that the interventionist Acts of lease cannot be explained on the basis of market failure.

Electronic transaction means any exchange of funds where, at least, one operation is conducted using electronic means. In these transactions, although the customer demands transaction to Transferring bank, but the electronic transaction part are doing by Clearing House or Intermediary bank. It concepts that Clearing House has not direct relationship with customer, consequently, the question arises that if damages caused by him, Is he liable against customer? It seems that the clearing house’s liability against its customers is a type of professional liability with a dual state that is a combination of contractual and civil liability named it “legal basis” that is composed of civil and contractual liability.  In addition, the liability of clearing house is strict and the mere reference of damage to him leads to its liability and it is only through proof by the force major can be exempted from liability. Attending to clearing house obligate the part of transaction mere and other part of transaction undertake by transferring and transferred bank, consequently, in loss claim  action, the customer should prove that damage refer to clearing house.

Preliminary agreement means an agreement that result from preliminary negotiations process for obtaining the ground of final and main contract conclusion. These preliminary agreements treat as steps towards achievement to the final contract and these preliminary agreements have different names and different forms. In respect of legal analysis, we are encounter with this question: whether preliminary agreements are enforceable or not. In litigations happening around enforceability of preliminary agreements, similar judicial precedent did not exist in legal systems. In England law general approach is that preliminary agreements are not enforceable while U.S.A law trend to enforceability of them. In civil law countries preliminary agreements are enforceable. In Iran legal system if a preliminary agreement have all of essential terms expressed in article 10 of the Iran civil code and this agreement be considered an example of that article or be conditioned with irrevocable contract, will be enforceable. Otherwise such agreement considered as an independent condition that jurisprudently is not enforceable. American courts i pay attention to many factors as express statement, partial performance; open terms, typically written contracts and field of negotiations. Practicing these factors in Iran courts can be useful for clearing the ambiguities of Iran contract legal system.

The Iranian civil code is a legal and cultural masterpiece which has an important role in Iranian law system. It is the result of the Compatibility between tradition and modernity. It has been based on the rule of the Islamic Jurisprudence or Islamic law which is known as Fiqh , and the modern legal system (French civil code). But these two important resources play different roles in the plan of the Iranian civil code. The structure, chapters and articles of the civil code have been adopted the French civil code , but its contents has been founded on the Islamic Jurisprudence (Islamic law i.e. Fiqh) , as stressed  by the writer of Iranian civil code. The effect of the Islamic Jurisprudence (Islamic law i.e. Fiqh) on the structure of the civil code is to the extent that some legal writer and jurists call it properly, “ Persian Jurisprudence”. This fact is effective in interpreting civil code. Duality of resources and approving hastily result in deficiency in Iranian code civil. This article is aimed to review of the resources and structure of Iranian civil code.

According to lessor and lessee relations Act 1978 and about hire rules, there are different and special sentences in comparison to civil law in Iran; one of these distinctions announces court based hire termination has different effects and consequences. In regard with to lessor and lessee relations Act 1978, underestimating the will of the included parties in termination, lessor especially, create and arise some questions about; what are the effects and consequences of issuance of termination and discharge verdict or only discharge verdict on of lessor and lessee? Furthermore, given the probability of nullification of this certain verdict based on lessor and lessee relations Act 1978; Article 28, which occurs as a consequence of incomplete reasons of hire termination, finding the answer of this question becomes more important and necessary. In this regard, at the one hand, it seems that issuance of tenant's discharge verdict according to lessor and lessee relations Act 1978, probably, is the most common and the most important cause of hire liquidation, on the other hand, it can't terminate tenant relationship and therefore the verdict ineffectiveness can't create hire contract.