فهرست مطالب

الهیات تطبیقی - پیاپی 23 (بهار و تابستان 1399)

مجله الهیات تطبیقی
پیاپی 23 (بهار و تابستان 1399)

  • تاریخ انتشار: 1399/03/01
  • تعداد عناوین: 12
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  • فاطمه رفعت خواه، عباس محمدیان*، مهیار علوی مقدم، ابراهیم استاجی صفحات 1-18

    میرچا الیاده، در جایگاه پدیدارشناس و اسطوره پژوه دینی، با تاکید بر تاویل دینی - تاریخی، هرمنوتیک را بهترین شیوه برای کشف معانی و تاویل پیام های پنهان اساطیر، نمادها و آیین ها می داند. یکی از وجوه بررسی شده او در پیوند با آیین شمن ها، جنبه عرفانی آن است. در این پژوهش تلاش شده است باتوجه به دیدگاه های تکثرگرایانه میرچا الیاده در اسطوره شناسی، پدیدارشناسی دینی، مطالعه دینی مبتنی بر هرمنوتیک، باور به دین به مثابه تجربه امر قدسی، زمان و مکان قدسی واسطوره به منزله روایت کننده تاریخ قدسی، با نگاهی تطبیقی، به بررسی عرفانیات تمهیداتعین القضات همدانی بپردازد و ازاین رو، نگرش های الیاده، صرفا به مثابه رهیافتی در تحلیل نگره های عرفانی عین القضات استفاده می شود. تمهیداتعین القضات همدانی ازجمله متون ارزشمند عرفانی است که در آن، هدف غایی، رسیدن به مرتبه انسان مذهبی/ کامل و دست یافتن به زمان و امر قدسی است که در قالب کرامت رخ می نماید. درحقیقت انسان در ازل صاحب زمان قدسی بوده است؛ اما در فرایند دنیوی، این مفهوم را از دست داده و به انسان تاریخی تبدیل شده است. نگارندگان با کاربرد چارچوب فکری الیاده در شواهد مستخرج از کتاب تمهیدات، بر این باورند که بسیاری از اندیشه های اسطوره ای، ریشه در اعصاری بسیار دور و عاداتی بس کهن دارند که در گذر هزاره ها تغییر شکل داده و کارکردی دگرگونه یافته اند؛ اما هنوز موجودیت خود را حفظ کرده اند و با توجه به تقدس و ضرورت شان، تکرار می شوند. در این اثر، علاوه بر شرح چگونگی آفرینش جهان هستی و انسان و نیز چرایی آفرینش و اهداف آن، روایت های ناب و تجربه های عرفانی فراوانی آمده است. دراین مقاله کوشیده می شود به تحلیل تمهیدات عین القضات همدانی از دریچه پدیدارشناسی دینی و هرمنوتیک و با نگاهی تطبیقی در حوزه های عرفان، فلسفه و دین پژوهی پرداخته شود.

  • مونا نوروزی، محمدامیر جلالی* صفحات 19-34

    به اعتقاد ژرار ژنت، هرگاه متنی متن دیگر را نقد و تفسیر کند، نسبت به متن اول فرامتن محسوب می شود. رابطه فرامتنی در تشریح، انکار یا تایید متن اول عمل می کند. پژوهش حاضر در پی آن است تا اجزای روایت ولادت و عروج مسیح (ع) را بر مبنای مقایسه روایات موجود در میان اناجیل اربعه، قرآن کریم، متون برگزیده تفسیری اسلامی (تفاسیر طبری، عتیق نیشابوری و ابوالفتوح رازی از سده های سوم تا ششم)، قصص الانبیاء های نیشابوری و بوشنجی (قرون پنجم تا ششم)، و متون برجسته شعر فارسی (تا پایان قرن ششم) بررسی کند و با تعیین شباهات میان هریک از این منابع در تشریح، انکار یا تایید آنها نسبت به دیگر منابع، چگونگی تحول روایات و وجود روابط فرامتنی میان آنها را مشخص کند. مشخص شد منابع شعری بررسی شده درباره شیوه آبستنی مریم، فرامتن تفسیر طبری اند که با انجیل لوقا مطابقت بیشتری دارند؛ اما سروده منوچهری دامغانی و تفسیر عتیق نیشابوری درین باره فرامتن یکدیگر دانسته شده اند. سروده ناصرخسرو در عین تاویل و انکار عبارات عیسی (ع) در انجیل، سخن خاقانی درباره «اتهام عیسی به خدایی» و نیز تعبیر نظامی از «زنده بر دار رفتن مسیح» باوجود انکار همگی، به نوعی فرامتنی از انجیل محسوب می شوند. متون شعر پارسی تا قرن ششم درخصوص روایات نقل شده درباره آغاز و پایان زندگانی مسیح، فرامتنی از منابع اسلامی و مسیحی اند. نه تنها تفاسیر اسلامی در این باره فرامتنی از قرآن کریم و پس از آن عهد جدیدند، میان تفاسیر اسلامی نیز رابطه فرامتنی برقرار است.

    کلیدواژگان: تحول روایت، رابطه فرامتنی، مقایسه روایت های اسلامی و مسیحی، ولادت و عروج مسیح(ع)
  • مهدی امامی جمعه* صفحات 35-46
    این مقاله از چشم انداز علامه محمدباقر مجلسی، نگاهی به فلسفه اسلامی و مکتب تفکیک دارد. درحقیقت تلاش شده است از منظر مجلسی دوم، صاحب کتاب مرآهالعقول فی شرح اخبار آل رسول، محاکمه ای بین فلسفه اسلامی و مکتب تفکیک به عمل آید. میدان پژوهش، بیشتر کتاب العقل و الجهل و کتاب التوحید اصول کافی و شرح و تفسیر علامه مجلسی بر این دو کتاب است. شیوه عقلانی و نیز اصول و مبانی وجودشناسی مدنظر علامه برای استخراج و استنباط مراد امام معصوم، بررسی و با مرام مکتب، تفکیک و ادعاهای آنها مقایسه و تحلیل شده اند. علامه مجلسی در شرح کتاب عقل و جهل عقل شناسی را قبول کرده که در فلسفه اسلامی پذیرفته شده است. همچنین در شرح کتاب توحید از قواعد و براهینی استفاده کرده که کاملا مغایر و متعارض با مبانی است که بعدها در اندیشه های تفکیکی مطرح شدند و الهیات خود را بر آنها استوار کردند و با توجه به آنها معارف دینی را می فهمیدند و تفسیر می کردند.
    کلیدواژگان: تفکیک، عقلانیت فلسفی، وجود، علیت، سنخیت، مجلسی
  • یدالله رستمی* صفحات 47-59

    جان هیک از فیلسوفان دین است که به سازگاری وجود خدا (صفات او) و شرور معتقد است. او انسان را موجود نابالغ و ناقص می داند و شرور عالم را برای پرورش روح و تکامل انسان و ایمان واقعی به خداوند ضروری می داند و معتقد است هدف خداوند از ایجاد شرور اخلاقی و طبیعی، رشد فضایل اخلاقی و معنوی انسان است. گریفین از منتقدین جان هیک، نظریه او را نامعقول و غیرقابل دفاع می داند؛ زیرا به نظر او، دیدگاه هیک با صفاتی که به خدا نسبت می دهد، به ویژه قدرت مطلق او سازگار نیست. خدای قادر مطلق هیک، شرور بی دلیلی را در فرآیند طولانی خلقت بر بشر تحمیل می کند؛ درحالی که می تواند جهانی بیافریند، غیر از آنچه شاهد آنیم.

    کلیدواژگان: جان هیک، دیویدگریفین، خدا، مسئله شر
  • حسن رهبر* صفحات 61-74

    یکی از مسایل مهمی که فیلسوفان در نظام فکری خود آن را پی جویی می کنند، دستیابی به معرفت حقیقی و تبیین چگونگی امکان حصول آن است. مالبرانش و ملاصدرا از زمره فیلسوفانی اند که تلاش می کنند دستیابی به معرفت حقیقی و چگونگی امکان آن را در چهارچوب نظام فکری خود به منصه ظهور برسانند. مالبرانش با طرح نظریه «رویت در خدا» بر این باور است که برای ادراک حقایق باید آنها را در خدا مشاهده کرد. در باور او، انسان ابتدا ایده های اشیا را ادراک می کند و سپس به واسطه آن و با اتحاد با خدا به ادراک حقایق نایل می آید. ملاصدرا نیز معرفت حقیقی را مبتنی بر اراده الهی و شهود نفسانی انسان از رهگذر پیوند با عالم مجرد می داند که نگارنده از آن به «رویت با خدا» تعبیر می کند. ملاصدرا با ارجاع همه علوم به علم حضوری و نیز امکان معرفت حقیقی به واسطه شهود نفسانی، معرفت را مبتنی بر افاضه الهی می داند. از وجوه مشابهت آن دو، دریافته می شود نظریه معرفت شناختی آنها از نتایج دیدگاه هستی شناختی ایشان مبتنی بر اکازیونالیسم و وحدت وجود است که در مراحل بعد به نظریه بازنمایی ادراک منجر می شود. از وجوه مخالفت آن دو نیز دریافته می شود مالبرانش نظریه خود را امری فلسفی می داند و آن را در چهارچوب نظام فلسفی خود تبیین می کند؛ اما ملاصدرا دیدگاه خود را امری متعالی و در درجات والای عرفانی قلمداد می کند که انسان با پیوند با عالم مجرد به آن نایل می آید.

    کلیدواژگان: رویت در خدا، رویت با خدا، معرفت شناسی، مالبرانش، ملاصدرا
  • حمیدرضا پاشازانوس* صفحات 75-91

    دین، یکی از مهم ترین حوزه های روابط ایران و چین در دوره باستان است که تاکنون به صورت مستقل بررسی نشده است. مطابق منابع چینی، همه ادیان و آیین های مهم چین به غیر از دین تایویی و آیین کنفوسیوسی، مذاهب غیربومی چین اند و ادیان و آیین های دیگر ازجمله بودایی، زرتشتی، نسطوری، مانوی و اسلام همه از خارج از چین و توسط ایرانیان وارد چین شده اند؛ ازاین رو، نخبگان ایرانی علاوه بر ترویج دین های ایرانی در چین، نقش مهمی در ترویج دین های غیربومی ایران ازجمله مسیحیت در چین داشتند. با توجه به اینکه تاکنون مطالعه ای مستقل درباره میزان تاثیرگذاری این ادیان در چین باستان و براساس متون چینی صورت نگرفته، در نوشتار حاضر سعی شده است با روش مطالعه تطبیقی داده های تاریخی و باستان شناختی، با واکاوی متون چینی و دیگر مواد باستان شناسی مکشوفه در چین، نحوه ورود این دین ها به چین و میزان تاثیرگذاری آنها بر فرهنگ چین بررسی شود.

    کلیدواژگان: ایران باستان، چین، زرتشتی، مسیحیت، بودایی و مانویت
  • علی واحدپاک، امیرعباس علی زمانی*، بابک عباسی صفحات 93-109

    هدف اصلی مقاله حاضر، بررسی اندیشه مولانا در ساحت مرگ و تاثیر و ارتباط آن با زیستن اصیل است. برای رسیدن به این هدف از روش توصیفی تحلیلی استفاده شد. براساس این، دغدغه مولوی از آغاز تا انجام، شرح فراق از اصل، گم شدن در جهان عاریه و زیست اصیل در سایه مرگ اندیشی است. اندیشیدن به مرگ در منظومه فکری مولانا با سه اصل تفکر او یعنی خدا، عالم و آدم و همچنین سایر مفاهیم بنیادی ازجمله زندگی، عشق و اصالت پیوندی عمیق دارد. تعلیم بازگشت به اصل و یافتن انسان اصیل در سراسر آثار مولانا مشهود است. به نزد مولانا مرگ اندیشی از واجب ترین امور در ساختن زندگی اصیل است. او هرگز از مرگ نهراسیده است و مواجهه ای شجاعانه و اصیل با آن دارد. در این نگرش، پیوند آدمی با زیستن اصیل مبتنی بر عشق به خداوند و غفلت از مرگ موجب زندگی عاریه است؛ بنابراین، زیستن اصیل در هوش ستبر مولانا جز با زراعت در مزرعه مرگ اندیشی محقق نمی شود.

    کلیدواژگان: مرگ، مرگ اندیشی، اصالت، زندگی، مولانا
  • علیرضا خواجه گیر *، سوسن ایزدی دستنایی، پروین فروزنده صفحات 111-126

    از مفاهیم اساسی در روانشناسی تحلیلی یونگ، ضمیر ناخودآگاه جمعی، کهن الگوها و اساطیر مشترک در ضمیر ناخودآگاه تمامی انسان هاست. از دیدگاه یونگ، دین تجربه قدسی است که در ضمیر ناخودآگاه جمعی شکل می گیرد و همین بخش از ناخودآگاه است که کهن الگوها را نیز در خود جای می دهد. یونگ معتقد است اگر دین معنایی داشته باشد، باید این معنا را در اتصال آن با اسطوره ها جست وجو کرد. او زبان دین را زبانی نمادین می داند که برای کشف حقیقت آن باید این نمادها را رمزگشایی کرد. میرچا الیاده نیز با رویکردی پدیدارشناسانه و هرمنوتیکی به بیان اسطوره و نماد می پردازد. او بر این باور است که دین به تجربه امر قدسی اشاره دارد و عملکرد دین به ظهور امر مقدس کمک می کند تا در ظرف طبیعت، مظاهر طبیعی و تاریخ آشکار شود. از دیدگاه او، اسطوره با آفرینش در ارتباط است. او اسطوره را الگویی برای اعمال دقیقا دینی می داند که برای یافتن منشا دین باید سراغ آن رفت؛ بنابراین، ارایه تعریفی واحد و پذیرفته شده همگان از اسطوره، امری دشوار است. با وجود این، اسطوره را روایتی از تاریخ قدسی در نظر می گیرد و آن را مرتبط با حادثه ای قرار می دهد که در زمان ازلی اتفاق افتاده و جوهر و خمیرمایه اصلی دین است. در این مقاله با رویکردی توصیفی تطبیقی رابطه دین و اسطوره از دیدگاه یونگ و الیاده به تصویر کشیده شده است.

    کلیدواژگان: یونگ، الیاده، دین، اسطوره، نماد
  • حمید کاویانی پویا * صفحات 127-148

    انسان اساطیری در نگرش و بینش خود، برای حوادث اتفاقی جایگاهی قایل نبود. او درباره انگیزه و بنیاددهنده هستی و خویش، برداشتی پندارگونه داشت و برای مصایب و ناخرسندی های دنیای پیرامون و حتی ویژگی ها، محدودیت ها و محرومیت هایی که با آن سروکار داشت، دلایل و فلسفه ای را باور داشت. بر این مبنا یکی از مسایل مهم در اساطیر تمدن های کهن، بحث گناه و نافرمانی نخستین انسان یا زوج نخستین در مقابل نیروهای نامریی و خدایان است که مصیبت هایی را برای آدمی به ارمغان آورد. ماهیت و چرایی تحقق این گناه و پیامدهای ارتکاب به گناه نخستین برای بشریت نیز از مسایل مهمی اند که در هر یک از تمدن های ایرانی، میانرودانی و یونانی مطرح شده اند و تمایزها و تشابه هایی دارند. بر اساس این، در این پژوهش تلاش شده است با بهره گیری از منابع و اسناد مهم دینی، اساطیری و حماسی و با رویکرد مقایسه ای، مفهوم گناه در هر یک از سه تمدن باستانی توصیف شود و با واکاوی روایت های مذکور، چرایی، چگونگی و پیامدهای گناه نخستین تحلیل شوند. نتایج نشان دادند تمدن های باستانی ایران (مزدیسنی)، میانرودان و یونان در مفهوم گناه، چرایی و چگونگی ارتکاب انسان به گناه نخستین تفاوت هایی دارند؛ این تفاوت ها به فراخور بینشی از فلسفه پیدایش انسان و ویژگی های آدمی و به ویژه براساس نگرش موجود در آموزه های دینی اقوام و ملل مختلف به خدایان و خواسته های آنان است و نیز جایگاهی که در آفرینش برای آدمی قایل می شوند؛ البته به سبب الگوی فکری مشترک، تشابه ها و همسانی هایی درباره پیامدها و عقوبت این گناه در تمدن های مزبور وجود دارد.

    کلیدواژگان: گناه نخستین، ایران، میانرودان، یونان، میرایی، اساطیر
  • محمدرضا ارشادی نیا * صفحات 149-160

    حکیم آقاعلی مدرس در تحریر و تقریر اصل توحید بر کاربست اصول حکمت متعالیه اهتمام جدی دارد. اصل وجود مستقل و رابط از همان اصولی است که صدرالمتالهین برای نیل به وحدت شخصی وجود و گذر از اصل علیت تباین انگار به تطور و تشان به کار گرفته است. حکمای پس از او نیز به این اصل عنایت ویژه داشته و به سان او به بیانات مختلف طی طریق کرده اند. حکیم آقاعلی مدرس چندان اهتمام به این مسئله دارد که مضاف بر قلم فرسایی در تعلیقه ها و بدایع الحکم، رساله مستقل وجود رابط</em> را در این راستا نگاشته است. باوجود این تفصیل و تبیین، برخی او را متهم به خلط وجود رابط و رابطی کرده و او را کثرت انگار و در شمار معارضان وحدت وجود پنداشته اند. در این راستا عباراتی را که حکیم برای رد خوانش خام و تقریر ناهنجار از وحدت وجود به کار برده، پشتوانه ادعای خود قرار داده اند. سپس هنگامی که با تقریر زیبا و مستحکم او از خوانشی خاص از وحدت وجود روبه رو شده اند، دچار تشویش شده و حکیم را متهم به هم خوانی نداشتن مبنا و بنا پنداشته اند. بازخوانی مدعاهای شتاب زده و سطحی و واکاوی موضع آن حکیم راسخ در حکمت متعالیه، ژرفای خردورزی متعالی را بیش از پیش نمایان می سازد و از ساحت حکمت متعالیه شبهه زدایی خواهد کرد.

    کلیدواژگان: آقاعلی مدرس، وجود رابط و رابطی، وحدت شخصی وجود
  • قربان علمی *، پیام همایونی املشی صفحات 161-180

    ادبیات عرفانی - مکاشفاتی نگاشته‌هایی را در بر می‌گیرد که در آن، عارف از تجربه‌های عرفانی خویش پرده‌برداری می‌کند. مشتیلد ماگدبورگی و روزبهان ‌بقلی، عارفانی در دو حوزه مسیحیت و اسلام هستند که در این شکل ادبی به نگارش نورجاری‌الهی و کشف‌الاسرار دست ‌زده‌اند. این دو کتاب باوجود تمایزها و افتراق‌های ریز و درشت برآمده از تفاوت‌ها در دو سنت دینی - عرفانی، از سویه‌هایی هم‌نوا با یکدیگر برخوردارند؛ شباهت‌هایی که از شکل و نوع مکاشفه تا سبک و نگارش متن را شامل می‌شود و امکان و جواز مقایسه را صادر می‌کند. این مکاشفات در بسیاری موارد جز با فراخواندن نمادها و آرایه‌های ادبی گوناگون، در قالب نوشتار نمی‌گنجند. مواجهه مستقیم انسان و خداوند، روح این آثار است که در اصطلاحاتی چون عشق و اشتیاق، وحدت و اتحاد، نور و حیرت بیان می‌شود. این حضور خداوندی از تمایل او به سالک ناشی می‌شود و عارف، این حضور الهی حجاب‌افکن و غیب‌نما را جز در لباس التباس توصیف‌پذیر نمی‌یابد. این تجربه‌های عرفانی، گاه چنان سنگین و ثقیل است که زبان این دو، تاب‌وتوان بیانش را حتی در لفافه نماد و تمثیل نیز ندارد. درنهایت، سیروسلوک مشتیلد و روزبهان در نبود هیچ فاصله و واسطه‌ای با خداوند، همراه با بی‌ارادگی و حیرتی متعالی، در اتحاد یا وحدتی با او به سرانجام می‌رسد. این مقاله با اتخاذ روش مقایسه‌ای، گفت‌وگوی میان دو اثر را به نظاره نشسته و با تحلیل تجربه‌های توصیف‌شده، در راستای شناخت هرچه بهتر پدیدارهای مکاشفاتی هم‌نوای آنها برآمده است.

    کلیدواژگان: تجربه عرفانی - مکاشفاتی، روزبهان بقلی، کشف الاسرار و مکاشفات الابرار، مشتیلد ماگدبورگی، مکاشفه، نورجاری الهی
  • آمنه فروزان کمالی، علی خضری * صفحات 181-194

    بررسی لایه های ترکیبی و بلاغی از مولفه های ساختاری آثار ادبی، راهی برای پی بردن به لایه های درونی اندیشه خالق اثر است که نقش بسزایی در انتقال مفاهیم دارد و به سخن، تعالی می بخشد. ادعیه و مناجات ایمه(ع)</sup>، سرشار از آموزه های بلند عرفانی و معنوی اند که از عمق جانشان سرچشمه گرفته و روح حاکم بر آنها احساس عجز و ناتوانی و خواهش و التماس از معبود است. یکی از این آثار پرمایه، مناجات منظوم امام علی(ع)</sup> است. این مناجات دربردارنده حقایق و معارفی است که بیان کننده توحید و توجه انسان ها به ساحت مقدس ربوبی است. هدف پژوهش حاضر، تحلیل و ارزیابی عوامل ساختاری و سبکی مناجات منظوم امام علی(ع)</sup> است تا از این رهگذر، میزان تاثیرگذاری مولفه های سبکی در انتقال مفاهیم آن به مخاطب تبیین شود. بر اساس این، با تکیه بر روش توصیفی تحلیلی، شناسه های سبکی مناجات در لایه های ترکیبی و بلاغی چون تقدیم و تاخیر، استفهام، ندا، تکرار، تضاد و... بررسی شده اند. یافته ها نشان می دهند ذوق سلیم در انتخاب واژگان متضاد و هم نشینی آنها در محور مرکزی کلام، تکرار اصوات و واژگان و... در تضرع حضرت به درگاه ربوبی و طلب رحمت و عطوفت باری تعالی موثر است.

    کلیدواژگان: سبک شناسی، لایه ترکیبی، لایه بلاغی، مناجات منظوم امام علی(ع)
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  • Fatemeh Rafatkhah, Abbas Mohammadian *, Mehyar Alavi Moghaddam, Ebrahim Estaji Pages 1-18

     Mircea Eliadeh, in the role of a phenomenologist and mythologist of religious scholars, emphasizes on the religious-historical interpretation of hermeneutics as the best way to discover the meanings and interpretation of hidden messages of mythology, symbols and rituals, and one of its aspects examined. With the shamanism, it is a mystical aspect. This research seeks to study the Tamhidat-e of Ayn al-Qudat Hamadani provisions in view of the pluralistic views of Mircea Eliade in mythology, religious phenomenology, and hermeneutical religious studies. The mentioned work is one of the most valuable mystical texts in which the ultimate goal is to reach the level of complete religious and complete humanity and to attain the holy time which is in the form of dignity; in fact, man has been holy from the beginning of the time, But it has lost its growth in the world and it is considered a historical person. By adopting the intellectual framework of Eliade, based on the evidence in the Tamhidat, the authors of the paper try to obtain the result that many mythological thoughts are rooted in many years and very old habits that have evolved over the years of the year Data and other functions have been found, but still retain their existence and are repeated with respect to their sacredness and necessity. In this work, in addition to the description of how the creation of the universe and man, as well as the cause of its creation and its purposes, there are abundant narratives and mystical experiences. Mircea Eliadeh, as the interpreter of religious symbols, believed that religion refers to the experience of the sacred one, and the phenomenal religion uses historical documents to express the holy manifestation  and the existential position and religious meanings presented in these phenomena. He believes that the myth is based on ontology, and it speaks only of facts and things that have actually happened and are fully manifested. According to Eliadeh, the truth is the Holy One, which is, in fact, really true; hence, the analysis based on the distinction between holy and unholy is the focus of his work. Mystical texts have received a great deal of mythological beliefs. Tamhidat is also full of cultural and religious information of the writer's time and can be reviewed and reviewed by the rules and principles of the science of religious mythology. In this research, in view of the necessity of knowing more scientifically how the reflection of mythological beliefs in the culture and the way of thinking and life of the people, especially the circle considered among Sufis and Gnostics, has been abandoned unconsciously by the abandonment of mythological rituals and thoughts. This text, which is one of the most important texts of Sufism, is examined according to the views of religious mythology, Mircea Eliadeh and his theoretical frameworks in his works. The study of the part of the phenomenology of religion, the views and views of Mircea Eliadeh, and the study of the quality and the nature of the relationship between mystical texts and religious mythological issues are urgently needed. One of the manifestations of mythology can be sought in its relation to religion and religious elements, and the topic that has been considered in most of the views of mythologists is the functions of myth. How the context is based on what the myth is shaped is more related to its origin, but along with this approach, awareness of the functions of myth is also considered. In this context, the link between myth and religion and the religious functions of the myth emerges as a subset of religious mythology. Mircea Eliadeh, with his research on myths and the symbolism of them, has been instrumental in explaining and illustrating the symbols in the myth. In his studies, he first emphasizes the sacredness of myths among the tribes, and in defining what this scholar presents to the history of religions of myth, the myth is "a manifestation of all and all sincerity".For experimental and rational minds, a natural situation or process, in the magical-religious experience, is manifested as the manifestation of power or manifestation of the sanctity, and nature, exclusively by virtue of this manifestation of power and manifestations of holiness are a magical-religious theme, and thus are taken into account in religious phenomenology and religious history.The present study sought to address the multidimensional views of Mircea Eliadeh in mythology, religious phenomenology, and religious studies based on hermeneutics, which speaks in conjunction with the correlated points of religion and myth, and the mythical features, the symbolic of religions discusses the comparative study of the mystical text of the Provisions of the Imperialism of Hamedani.

    Keywords: comparative analysis, Mythology, Tamhidat, Holy Time, Mircea Eliadeh, Hermeneutics
  • Mona Norouzi, Mohammadamir Jalali * Pages 19-34

    A text relation with other texts has been an important subject, which attracted the attention of researchers such as Kristeva, Barthes, Riffattere, Genette, ete. In the 1960s, it was Julia Kristeva who used "Intertextuality" for the first time, indicating any relation between different texts. Thereafter, Gérard Genette expanded the study domain of Kristeva, and called relation between a text with other texts or different from its own as "transtextuality" and subdivided this type into five categories where intertextuality was only one type. Other categories were called "arcitextuality", "paratextuality", "metatextuality" and "hypertextuality", each with their own subcategories. According to Gerard Genette's theory, whenever a text sets to criticize and interpret another text, it will be considered as a Metatext for that text. In Metatextuality as a form of Intertextual intercourse, a text can explain, condemn or endorse another text. This paper studies and discusses all the elements of narratives related to the birth and death of Christ based on comparison of the narratives in New Testament (Matthew, Mark, Luke and John), Quran, Islamic interpretations (Tafsir al-Tabari, Tafsir-i Sur abadi, Rawz al-jinan wa ruh al-jinan, Qisas Al-Anbiya) and Persian poems (until 6th century AH). Furthermore, this paper sets out to analyze the transformation of narrations as well as similarities and differences based on a Metatextual approach. This study documents that not only there are various narratives between Christian and Islamic sources, but also there are differences among Islamic sources (even in a single text) that have been reflected in Persian poems. A way of determining "Metatextual" relationships is examining of the similarities between two or more texts in the type and manner of the narrative differences of these references in a single subject compared to other sources. Moreover, it turned out that differences in narrations is depends on interpretations and interpretations itself is depends on translation. (As the term "taqi" is translated both in the noun and adjective; causing to make two different narratives of Mary's life) Considering Persian poems, especially poetic texts until 6th century AH, such as poems of Muslim poets who were living in Arranand Shirvan, we found out that both Christian and Islamic narratives have been reflected on poems. It shows that not only the author's ideological background makes narrative differences, but also cultural and historical context is effective. This study documents that, on Mary's getting pregnant, there are four interpretations based on the verse 12 of Surah At-Tahrim, as well as four narrations: 1. Blowing into her mouth (based on Tafsir-i Sur abadi's narrative) 2. Blowing into her sleeve (based on Tafsir al-Tabari's narrative) 3. Blowing into her vagina (based on Qisas Al-Anbiya's narrative) 4. Blowing into her dress (based on another story of Qisas Al-Anbiya). The poetic sources that have been examined on Mary's pregnancy are metatext of Tafsir al-Tabari that shows Blowing into her sleeve is the reason of getting pregnant; however, Mary's pregnancy in Manuchehri Damghgani's poems has been narrated based on Tafsir-i Sur abadi's narrative. Therefore Blowing into her mouth is the reason of pregnancy; these two texts can be considered as metatext of each other. Among interpretations are mentioned above, overall, Tafsir al-Tabari is more consistent with Luke's Gospel. While the going of Jesus near "his Father" is rejected by Nasser Khosro's poem, it is can be a metatext of Bible. While Khaghani's belief on the "accusation of being God" is a criticism of Christian belief, and also Nezami's interpretation of "being alive during crucifixion", is a denial of Jesus's crucifixion, all of them are metatext of the bible. Examination of Persian poetry until 6th century AH shows that there are the frequency of vocabulary such as blowing, sleeves and virginity which are related to birth of Jesus, as well as the cross, the fourth heaven, the position of the sun, Baitul Ma'mur, and the needle, that are related to the crucifixion / ascension of Jesus. We can say that these words are influenced by Christian and Islamic narratives in the same way; therefore, these words, which confirm the Christian and Islamic narratives, can be considered as metatext of both of them. As the Islamic interpretations (both Shi'i and Sunni) on Christ's birth and death are the Metatext of the Holy Qur'an and New Testament, there is also a Metatextual relationship between the Islamic interpretations. Consequently Persian poems (until 6th century AH) can also be a Metatext of Islamic interpretations, and hence they are a Metatext of the Holy Quran as well as Christian sources.

    Keywords: Transformation of narrations, comparison of the Islamic, Christian narratives, the way of reflection of Christ's life in Persian poems
  • Sayyed Mahdi Emamijome * Pages 35-46
    Abstract The present paper looks through Islamic Philosophy and Detachment Theory from the point of view of Mohammad Bāqir Majlisi. In fact, it aims to set a tribunal between Islamic Philosophy and Detachment School of thought in the view of the Second Majlesi, the author of Mir’āt al-Uqul fi Sharh Akhbār al-Rasul (the Mirror of Intellects on Description of Traditions of Prophet’s Descendants). The source for the study is mainly the book Al-Aghl val-Jahl (Intellect and Ignorance) and Al-Tawhid fi Kitab al-Kafi (Oneness of God in Kitab al-Kafi) along with Mohammad Baqer Majlesi’s interpretation of these two books. Majlesi’s rational method and the ontological principles he utilized to extract and deduce the impeccable Imam’s intention from his words are also investigated, compared to and analyzed with ideologies of Detachment Theology. Summary of the Paper Detachment Theology in this paper is a particular movement in the arena of religious knowledge pursuing thoughts originated from Mirza Mahdi Esfahani and expanded by his disciples. The axis of this school of thought is to seek ways to understand religion from religion itself and avoid utilizing philosophical and mystical methods and therefore their achievements to perceive divine knowledge. Claims and principles of Detachment Theology have a long history in the Islamic world; however, it was systematically processed in the school of Mirza Mahdi Esfahani and his disciples. Nevertheless, the point neglected is Mohammad-Baqer Majlesi’s point of view and his critique on these principles. In his book The Mirror of Intellects which is an extended interpretation of Kitab al-Kafi and especially in his interpretation of Book of Intellect and Book of Oneness of Kitab al-Kafi, Mohammad-Baqer Majlesi discusses and overtly criticizes principles and intellectual roots based on which Detachment Theology is developed. Majlesi’s critique is based on a philosophical view and such a view was and is completely neglected by him. In his interpretation of the Book of Intellect, Majlesi defines the term “Intellect” according to traditions and refers to its philosophical definition as an acceptable one. Furthermore, in his interpretation of the Book of Oneness, Majlesi bases understanding of traditions on philosophical ontology and uses terms like existence, nature, possibility, necessity, cause, cognation, necessarily existent by itself and possibly existent by itself repetitively so that an understanding of traditions is formed. He refers to the creator and the creature as necessarily existent by itself and possibly existent by itself, believes in a cause and effect relationship between them and accepts the cognation between cause and effect and especially the necessary and the possible and therefore he, like philosophers, believes that if there is no cognation, theology will break down when it comes to cognition. In this regard, he admits all principles around causality rules and the rule of “the one who gives something could not lack it”. Concepts and principles all criticizing and rejecting Detachment Theology are discussed and analyzed in the present paper to show that Mohammad-Baqer Majlesi possessed a philosophical view.
    Keywords: Detachment (Tafkik) Theory, Philosophical Rationality, Existence, Causality, Cognation, Majlesi
  • Yadollah Rostami * Pages 47-59

    The problem of evil is a rational problem for theism. The root of this problem is to ask why the omnipotent and absolute benevolent God creates evil or does not prevent its genesis. John Hick explains and justifies evil by proposing the theory of Soul-Making. He argues that the omnipotent and absolute benevolent God can create a world in which there is no evil and has complete control over its creatures, especially human beings, but in this case, the world will become a stagnant place, and its inhabitants will be caught up in the indolence and comforting of the body, which will be incompatible with God's purposes. He also agrees with Iranaeus in his theory that human beings are created imperfect and evolve in the long process of creation, which is accompanied by pain and affliction. John Hick uses both types of moral and natural evil to explain his theory. In the field of moral evils, he emphasizes the authority and freedom of man, which have been granted to him by God. Because in his view, a world in which free beings can freely choose goods and through which the growth of moral and spiritual virtues can be achieved is better than a world in which the non-committed sin (moral evil) is more valuable than freedom. Of Course, Hick believes that man has an epistemological distance from God that man must be able to attain religious growth in situations where he has relative independence from God. Hick believes that God's reason for prescribing natural evils is that their fulfillment is necessary and that they exalt  human soul and acquire his moral acts in such a way that man obtains virtues such as compassion, empathy, devotion, and so on by experiencing evils. He also appeals to the afterlife and compensation in the other world to justify some evils that have no benefit for human beings in this world. David Griffin, a philosopher of religion, considers Hick's view as inconsistent and indefensible and notes some fundamental critiques about his theory. Griffin believes that the situation in the world, which includes many horrible evils, is incompatible with the belief in Hick's omnipotent God because God must exercise his power to prevent the evils by seeing them. Such evils not only do not exalt the human soul but also cause despair and mental defect in humans. He believes that there is no correlation between the acquisition of values and virtues with real freedom in Hick theory. Because God can create human beings in such a way that they always do good deeds freely or instill in them the idea that they are free, while only God is aware of their lack of freedom. Griffin sees Hick's view in justifying evil as a kind of promoting immortality because his concern is to create virtues in exchanges for enduring evils. He believes that Hick's view requires the denial of the genuine evil, which is contrary to the conventional understanding and common sense of the man. Finally, according to Griffin, Hick's belief in the resurrection is incompatible with justifying the unjustified evils, because the God of Hick has an epistemological distance from man, for whom the existence of God does not seem obvious for believing.

    Keywords: John Hick, David Griffin, The problem of Evil, Soul-Making
  • Hassan Rahbar * Pages 61-74

    Although Mulla Sadra believed in sensory, imaginary, and intellectual perceptions, he sought true knowledge within a framework beyond the senses, intellect, and the material world and considered it to be the result of divine enlightenment and exaltation, as well as the promotion of the soul to the world of meaning, and in other words, the knowledge of God. At the same time, in the West, with the advent of Descartes (1650) and his philosophical tradition, epistemology received more attention, which was the result of the emergence of the age of skepticism, which itself was the outcome of the emergence of modern science and the rejection of Aristotelian tradition. Among the Cartesians, Malebranche (1715) proposed a new theory in the field of epistemology, calling it the ‘vision of God’. This theory was quite different from the epistemological views of others such as Descartes and his followers. According to Malebranche, knowledge depended on God and His will. Also, in the works of Mulla Sadra and Malebranche, the truth of perception is interpreted as a kind of representation. This means that we cannot perceive objects directly, but we perceive them through intermediaries. However, the main question of the present article is how to obtain true knowledge and how to acquire it in the philosophy of Mulla Sadra and Malebranche, which is based on the will of God? On the other hand, what are the similarities and possible contradictions between the theory of vision in God in the philosophy of Malebranche and the theory of acquiring knowledge through the enlightenment of God in Mulla Sadra? The author of the present study interprets the latter as ‘vision by God’. In this article, the author tries to answer the mentioned questions in this field by the analytical and descriptive methods based on library research. By proposing the theory of ‘vision in God’, Malebranche believes that to understand the facts, one must observe them in God. According to him, man first perceives the ideas of things and then through them, and by union with God, he realizes the truths. Mulla Sadra also considers true knowledge to be based on the divine will and human psychic intuition through connection with the spiritual world, which the author interprets as ‘vision by God’. Mulla Sadra, by referring all sciences to knowledge by the presence on the one hand and the possibility of true knowledge through psychic intuition, on the other hand, considers knowledge to be based on divine forgiveness.  From the similarity of the two, it can be pointed out that their epistemological theory is based on the results of their ontological view based on occasionalism and the unity of existence, which in the later stages leads to the theory of representation of perception. From the opposition of the two views, it can be noted that Malebranche considers his theory as a philosophical matter and explains it within the framework of his philosophical system. But Mulla Sadra considers his view to be transcendent and in the highest mystical degrees, that man attains by connecting with the spiritual world.

    Keywords: Vision in God, Vision by God, Malebranche, Mulla Sadra
  • Hamidreza Pasha Zanous * Pages 75-91

    One of the most important aspects of the relationship between Iran and China in ancient times is religion that has so far not been addressed independently. According to Chinese sources, all major religions of China, except Taoism and Confucianism, are non-indigenous, and other religions such as Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, Nestorianism, Manichaeism, and Islam are all from outside China. These religions were brought to China by the Iranian elites. Apart from the expansion of Iranian religions in China, Iranian elites have played an important role in introducing non-Iranian religions, including Christianity, to the Chinese people. In the second century BC, some Parthian Buddhists immigrated to China. For several centuries, they persisted in China in translating Buddhist texts into Chinese. The first school for translating and teaching Buddhism was established in Luoyang (capital of the Han dynasty) by the Parthian prince, An Shigao. In addition to An Shigao, other teachers of the school were Iranians such as An Xuan and Yan Fotiao. There they engaged in teaching Buddhism for two hundred years.  The prefix “An” in China, pertained to the people who lived in the Parthian Land. The progeny of An Shigao was active in two areas from the 4th to 8th century AD. The Chinese kings sent some of them as their ambassadors to Central Asia. For example, some of them reached high positions in Sabao 薩保, the Chinese state agency for foreign trade. In his study, Forte tries to recognize the descending branches of An Shigao and other Parthian Iranians residing in China. It is said that some descendants of An Shigao found high stature within the Chinese Court. Governmental and religious posts of the “An” clan in China is an indication of the high status this elite Parthian clan held. Their power and influence were to the extent that they hold the highest governmental ranks in the Chinese Court. Their status, however, was tottered in the middle of the 8th century after the uprising of An Lushan安禄山 (703-757 AD). An Lushan’s uprising, which persisted after his demise, was referred to as the “An Shi Rebellion 安史之乱” in the Chinese sources, probably referring to his Parthian origin. The result was the Tang Empire’s feeling of anger toward the Iranian originals, inasmuch as the Iranians and Sogdians residing in China concealed their foreign origin. The best example can be An Chongzhang 安重璋, the war minister of Tang Court. He changed his surname in 756 AD, and upon being asked about the reason, he reiterated that he is ashamed of having a name similar to An Lushan. He chose Li Baoyu 李抱玉 as his name. Religion activity of the Iranians in China continued in the Sassanid era as well. As the official religion of the Sassanid Kingdom, the Zoroastrian religion paved its way to China probably in the advent of the 6th century AD as the two nations experienced a thaw in their political and economic ties. Gradually, four Zoroastrian temples were established in Chang'an, two in Luoyang, and some in Kaifeng. The Zoroastrian religion was called “Xiān祆” in China. No doubt, the Sogdian tradesmen played a pivotal role in the dissemination of Zoroastrianism as they did for Buddhist, Manichaean, and Christian religions. For example, Zoroastrian symbols found in China on the gravestone of a Sogdian tradesman named Wirkak is an indication of the fact that the Sogdian immigrants following Zoroaster lived in China.  Later, Nestorian Christianity is another non-Iranian religion disseminated in China by Iranians. The oldest available document about the Chinese Christians is the writings on a Nestorian inscription belonging to the year 781 AD, containing matters on the 150-year history of Chinese Christianity. Found in Chongren temple in China, the inscription is written in Chinese and Syriac languages and is currently in the Beilin Museum in Xi’an.  It tells that a group of Nestorian Christians arrived in Xi’an in 635 AD under the guidance of a Persian monk named Āluóběn.  The Manichaean religion was also imported into China by the Iranian elites. According to the Chinese Manichaean tradition, the religion was formed, thereupon, the arrival of a Manichaean Mōzak at the time of Emperor Gaozong who reigned from 649 to 684 AD. From 762 AD, the Manichaean religion set to be the formal religion of the Khanate of Uighur.  After the fall of the Great Khanate of Uighur in 840 AD and due to the propagation of the Manichaean religion in China, the Emperor Wu zong of Tang (840-846 AD) issued an order in 844 AD, prohibiting the Manichaean religion along with some other Iranian religions including Zoroastrianism.  However, this was not the end of Iranian religions in China and some of these religions persisted in China. For example, the Manichaean followers and priests shuttled between Central Asia and the Chinese Court until the end of the 10th century AD, constantly wearing white garments and hats.  By the same token, according to a Chinese reference called Mingshu, a Manichaean priest escaped to a southern area in China called Fu-tang and propagated his religion in Fujian province. The religion endured in southern China from the 10th to the 17th century (1600 CE). All this information mentioned above will be discussed more so that the ways of the introduction of these religions into China and the level of their influence on Chinese culture could be realized.

    Keywords: Ancient Iran, China, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, Buddhism, Manichaeism
  • Ali Vahedpak *, Amir Abbas, Alizamani, Babak Abbasi Pages 93-109

    The main purpose of this article is to study Rumi’s thoughts regarding death and its effect and relationship with the original life. To achieve this end, the descriptive-analytical method has been used. Accordingly, Rumi’s concern is to describe the separation from the origin and to be lost in the borrowed world and to live in an original life in the shadow of death-awareness. Thinking about death in Rumi’s system of thought is deeply connected with his three principles of thought, namely, God, the universe, and the man, as well as other basic concepts such as life, love, and originality. The teaching of returning to the original and finding the original human is evident throughout Mawlana’s works. According to him, death is one of the most important issues in making life original. In this regard, by expressing the types of death, he divides it into two types of compulsory and voluntary, and by explaining voluntary death as the original death, he seeks to achieve happiness in life. He believes that due to meditation on death, the man can be saved from material existence by going beyond the realm of natural death and attain originality by purifying the soul. For him, the memory of death and thinking about it is essential in connection with the original life. Rumi considers the wisdom of death-awareness to be the separation of original and unoriginal humans and believes that the common perception of the phenomenon of death needs to be corrected. Because only the original view of death can save the essence of life from the shell of the body and be the fundamental principle in returning to the original. Returning to the original throughout Masnavi, odes of Shams, and other works of Rumi is the most obvious theme of his thinking. Originality in his thought is realized by the love of God and belief in eternity. For this reason, Rumi depicts the wisdom of death in returning everything to its originality, but what prevents this return to the original one in his view is nothing but the great calamity of originality, which is improper imitation. Although Rumi considers imitation to be one of the necessities and preconditions of the worldly life, the indiscriminate imitation of people is the most fundamental plague of originality in his view. Rumi considers human reliance on his views and thoughts as a cause of the original life. He believes the original human being becomes original in life in form and meaning due to connecting with God and loving Him. Therefore, in his view, the man, relying on God, can break all the internal and external unoriginal idols. The man takes a fundamental and original transformation by adopting an enthusiastic approach to death and by accepting it. The original man, unlike the unrighteous man who always has a careless and superficial confrontation with death, has a courageous and life-giving confrontation with death due to death- awareness. Thus, Rumi’s original man is a seeker of death and wants death, and death is a rebirth for him. It is a birth from an unoriginal life to an original life that is accompanied by new joys and sufferings. Since originality in Rumi’s view is related to eternity, and God, love, and non-existence are the three sides of the original life, so he never fears death and finds it the basis of life. Thus, in Rumi’s view, originality in life is realized in a two-way relationship with mortality. This realization is done in such a way that God has knitted the warp and woof of originality in the workshop of love and non-existence. Besides, with the death of lovers, he gives them eternal life. On the other hand, escaping death in Rumi’s view causes distress and regret, as well as falling into the trap of unrealistic life. Ignorance of death will replete the man with trifle details of life and makes him suffer from pain and borrowed treatments. Rumi believes that human life does not rely on anything but death, and that is why death in his view is the asylum of the dead and the safe coast of existence. Hence, death-awareness is the cynosure of originality in life, and the original life is in a two-way relationship with death so that looking at life with the glasses of death gives it originality, and neglecting it leads to the unoriginal life. The original life in Rumi’s high sagacity cannot be achieved except by cultivating in the farm of death-awareness. Therefore, in the present study, first, the types of death, thinking about it, originality in Rumi’s idea, and the pests and obstacles of living original, as well as human characteristics and original life have been discussed. Then, the authors show how Rumi goes through the path of original life with life-giving encounters and without fear of death. In the course of these discussions, considering that death and life are intertwined with the love of God and that death is chosen as the safe shore of the universe, we have argued that the original life is only in a two-way relationship with death. Finally, death-awareness is considered as the most basic aspect of original life.

    Keywords: Death, Death-awareness, Originality, Life, Mawlana
  • Alireza Khajehgir *, Susan Izadi Dastenaei, Parvin Forouzandeh Pages 111-126

    The issue of religion has been very important in humans’ life from the beginning until now in such a way that it has played a special role even in their individual and social life. In this regard, theorists have studied this issue with different approaches and have offered different definitions of religion. One of these theorists is Mircea Eliade, who is a great researcher in the field of religion and myth. He has approached the issue of religion with a phenomenological approach. Emphasizing religious symbolism, he stated that religion refers to the experience of the sacred. In his view, the duty of religion and religious rites is nothing more than an increase in human exposure to the sacred. He considers the sacred to be a common component of all religions. Regarding the sacred manifestations, he believes that the symbols of the sacred can appear in the form of worldly affairs. He opposes the traditionalist approach and believes that the phenomenon of religion should be studied without reducing it to other areas. According to Eliade, myth is based on ontology and speaks only of the facts and things that have been manifested and how the universe was created and evolved. Eliade considers myth as a model for precisely religious practices that must be approached to find the origin of religion. Therefore, it is difficult to present a single and universally accepted definition of myth. However, he considers myth to be a narrative of sacred history and relates it to an event that has occurred in ancient times and is the essence of religion. According to Eliade, the historical method is useful for systematizing religion, and the belief in oneness and harmony with the world is one of the strongest foundations of myth. Using historical documents, he tries to express the manifestations of the sacred and find the existential position and the religious meanings presented in these phenomena. In his view, the sacred should not be sought merely in experiences specific to God. The manifestation of the sacred is abundantly hidden and visible in the symbolism and rituals of almost every culture, especially in the primitive and Asian cultures. Eliade considers the holy and fundamental element between religions to be the same thing. The realm of religion is the distinction between the sacred and the unholy. Carl Gustav Jung was also a great philosopher and psychologist who conducted studies on human nature and, as the founder of analytical psychology, linked archetypes to religion. One of the fundamental concepts in Jung psychology is the collective unconscious discussion. He considers archetypes to be important features of the collective unconscious. Referring to the issues such as myth and symbol, he considers the language of symbols as the language of the subconscious, which manifests itself through myth. In mythology, Jung seeks out signs of man’s inclination to the sacred that can be accurately traced in mythology to an understanding of archetypes. From Jung's point of view, God is also an archetype. He does not try to separate rituals and traditions from religion. According to Jung, myth and religion have traditionally interacted. Religion preserves myth and myth perpetuates religion. Myths, along with rituals, open the door to God, and myth, contrary to the belief that it is only enlightening, is the creator of experience. Jung believes that if religion has a meaning, it must be sought in connection with myths. He considers the language of religion as a symbolic language that must be deciphered in order to discover its truth. In this paper, using a comparative descriptive approach, the relationship between religion and myth is depicted from Jung and Eliade’s point of view. The psychological approach to the myth, the most important example of which presented in Jung's works, had a great influence on Eliade's approach to mythological studies of religion. According to Eliade, many of the terms used in the discussion of theology and mythology are used in the same way by Jung. Although Jung’s view of religion and myth was from the perspective of analytical psychology with an emphasis on the collective unconscious, there are similarities and differences in Eliade's approach to religious mythology, which was largely derived from religious phenomenology and hermeneutics interpretation. Eliade uses exemplary forms to mean the supreme example and the pattern of the prototype, while Jung considers exemplary forms to be the same collective unconscious structures. According to Eliade, myth is a narrative or symbolic manifestation of gods, angels, supernatural beings, and a cosmology in general that a group of people use to interpret its existence. But for Jung, myths are common themes that have always existed and are repeated in the same way throughout the lives of all human beings and form the basic collective unconscious structure. According to Jung, religion arises from the subconscious mind and is expressed in symbolic language. He sees archetypes as a kind of organizer of religion. He sees religion as a channel for satisfying the mythical tendencies in the individual’s psyche, which, by blocking this path, will find dangerous ways to emerge. But Eliade, with a phenomenological approach and an emphasis on religious symbolism and as an interpreter of religious symbols believes that religion refers to the experience of the sacred.

    Keywords: Jung, Eliade, religion, Myth, symbol
  • Hamid Kavyani Pooya* Pages 127-148

    The concept of sin and the nature of the first sin in ancient myths, religions of Iran, Greece, and Mesopotamia in mythical human thought, the world, and the world around it had rules and frameworks. More importantly, the human belief was that there was an invisible order between the beings and the universe. Of course, he considered himself to have duties to the universe and to the beings and gods, so his best job was to coordinate with this order because God created human for some reasons and he was required to obey divine commandments to attain salvation. On this basis, even in various religions, the wrongdoing of some human beings (especially in the early age of human life) could have consequences for the whole of humanity. Sin in ancient civilizations could have different origins in such a way that in the Iranian sense of sin (in ancient times) not only did the wrongdoer have an unfortunate consequence, but other creators were also at risk and harmed by the wrongdoer. On the other hand, in the Zoroastrianism view, sin was not only in relation to the gods and in disobeying the divine commandments in performing religious rituals, but also in dealing with self-fellow human beings and other beings. Thus, harming the right of other creatures, even plants, is also a human error in God’s cause, because they are all Ahurasad’s creations and should be cherished. This attitude to sin is also evident to some extent in other civilizations, especially in Greece and Mesopotamia. In the ancient world, and in virtually all ancient religions, the man was made a god or gods and thus the hometown of man was the place of living;the gods and humans were companions and neighbors of gods. Thus, gods lived in the myth and beliefs of Iranian, Mesopotamian, and Greek civilizations and especially the first human or first human Couple in land and place that enjoyed all blessings and did not think about death and did not face worldly suffering. But, the event caused the goddess, also a supreme divine creature, to be driven out of the gods and living in the shadow of the divine grace and the Garden of Eden (Paradise) and engaged in a low-yielding and diminishing habitat. Accordingly, ancient religions and myths have each offered reasons for depriving humans of eternal life, as well as being driven out of the gods and habitat of the first human being. There are some narrations with somesimilarities and in some cases some differences. However, what makes the myths of these civilizations different is the positive or conversely the unfavorable attitude to the human character and godly devotion to man. In the Iranian thought, because Ahuramazda (as the overall creator) has chosen man as the best creature, he has no role in committing sin In the Iranian thinking,the seducers are considered the first evil couple and evil forces and even the gods do not make him die him for the sins; rather, the sinful man is endangered by the difficulties because of moving toward evil deeds. But, in Mesopotamian and Greek civilizations, asthe philosophy of human creation has been to save the gods.In a civilization like Greece (and even in Mesopotamia), a god or Titan has had a role in the creation of man and giving him blessings without the participation of the great God. . The gods no longer have a positive attitude toward the man and even try to deprive him of divine attributes and get him into suffering. So, in such myths, these are gods who directly (with their false guidance) and indirectly (because of the inherent human nature) cause human beings to commit original sin and deprive themselves of the eternal life and prosperity. Thus, the gods play the role of human seductors; gods who sometimes appear so vicious and vindictive of Iranian and Mesopotamian thought that they take revenge and retribution from humanity, because the creation of man was contrary to the will of the gods and gods created disasters and suffering to hurt man or his creator (Prometheus). Also, the Greeks sometimes considered the root of the sin to be hereditary and believed that it completely deprived one of the rights to sin.

    Keywords: The First Sin, Iran, Mesopotamia, Greece, Death, Mythology
  • Mohammadreza Ershadinia* Pages 149-160

    The ontological principles of divine and transcendental wisdom are the basis of monotheistic knowledge. One of these principles is the division of existence into independent and dependent existences. In transcendental wisdom, the dependent existence is divided into copulative and inhering existence. Although the inhering existence depends on the independent existence, there is a distinction between them, and with such a view, the individual unity of being cannot be achieved. In scientific journals, similar articles have considered Hakim to be opposed to the individual unity of being. The present study intends to critically review the published article entitled "A Comparison of the views of Hakim Modarres Zenozi and Lady Amin on the Unity of Essence" (Ahlesarmadi & Izadi, 2013) in order to investigate the claim of Hakim’s confusion between the copulative and inhering existence leading to the existence of dualism. They believe the origin of this accusation is known in the interpretation that Aqa Ali erred for the copulative existence and experienced dualism. Because of dualism, he is a dualist who relates causality to the elaboration principle. Not only has this view not been successful, but it has also been in conflict. While the explanation of Aqa Ali Modarres about the individual unity of being such as introducing a copulative made existence as a pure connection to the creator, the introduction of copulative existence as a letter existence, the praiseworthy and detailed efforts of Hakim in the expression of unity in diversity and diversity in unity, returning causality to the elaboration principle, explaining the relationship between evident and manifested aspects, and other similar teachings all show that Hakim thinks in pure unity and he is acquitted of the charges. The mentioned article seeks to address the issue of confusion between the copulative and inhering existence to prove the accusation of Hakim's opposition to the individual unity of being. But, the article has turned to accusation both in terms of extracting and gathering opinions and in terms of inferring and judging. Fragmentation of expressions and showing paradoxical the coherent and transcendent approaches of Hakim has also been a tool for this purpose. Referring to explicit statements and strong positions of Hakim shows that the article did not understand the basis of Hakim’s thoughts and the instauration of individual unity of being and also did not present a just judgment.

    Keywords: Aqa Ali Modarres, Copulative, Inhering Existence, Individual Unity of Being
  • Ghorban Elmi *, Payam Homayuni amlashi Pages 161-180

    The mystical-apocalyptical literature includes the writings that the mystic shows his/her mystical experiences. Mechthild of Magdeburg and Ruzbihan Baqli are mystics in the Christian and Islam regions who have written the Flowing light of the godhead and Kashf al-Asrar va Mukashefat al-Anwar (the Unveiling of Secrets and Revelations of Lights) in this literary genre. These books in spite of having small and big differences and distinctions which come from their religious-mystical traditions have concordant directions, too. The analogies range from the form and type of revelation (apocalypse) to the genre and depiction of the text, so they make a comparison possible. The direct encountering of the human being and God is the spirit of these works which is expressed in terms such as love, enthusiasm, unity and union, light, and wonder. ‘Mysticism’ usually refers to the cognition that the mystic gains the insight or the special perception in there by meditation, prayer, or none-intermediary illumination. In addition, ‘mysticism’ is usually commented to the direct intuition and none-intermediary experience of God. The meaning of this word can be explained by three concepts: consciousness, presence, and transformation. Symbols, allegories, and apprehensible metaphors- totally referred to as literary arrays- are unique aspects of mystical texts to convey the purpose of the mystic. ‘Mukashifah’ means unveiling in the sense of illumination or epiphany. The opposite words are ‘satr’ and ‘istitar’. They show the act of veiling and occultation. ‘Kashf’ has come in Islamic mystical works as well as the Quran and Tradition. The synonyms of this word in English are revelation or apocalypse which have come from Christian mystical works in addition to the Bible especially in the Book of revelation or Revelation (Apocalypse) to John. The Flowing Light of the godhead is a book which has the Medieval features, for example, the language and culture of the nobilities, the Beguines with their consideration to asceticism, poverty, and assistance for souls at the moment of death and in their afterlife, the university-trained in theology and mainly the Dominicans. Consideration of the Flowing Light of the Godhead is on the presence of God, the mystical conduct of the human soul, and their union by love. The Mechthild’s mysticism is the type of ascent and descent, presence and absence. Kashf al-asrar (the unveiling of Secrets) is a book that has many intuitive‌‌‌ claims like shathiyyat (shatahat: ecstatic utterances). Kashf (to take away the veil of divinity) and iltibas (clothing with divinity) are two styles of Ruzbihan’s mystical experience. The features of his book are noticing the concept of appearance and disappearance, or occultation and presence in addition to confessing the giving of grace of God from upward by kashf. The comparable cases in these two works are the inability to saying about the revelation, God and His descriptions as the object of revelation, the intuition of the light, the capacity of the human being to understand God, understanding self-insignificance, God’s grace, and kindness as a starting point of revelation, compliance of prayer, love, enthusiasm and spiritual marriage, butler and wine, divine music, wonder, union, and unity. In the two forms of mystical experience (i.e. extrovertive and introvertive), inexpressibility is occasionally the claim of many mystics. But, in spite of the problem of ineffability, mystics have never been silent. Indeed, they have been called from God until passing up self-will for the sake of God’s will. In apocalyptical encounters with God and describing his descriptions, Mechthild with experience of transcendental God and yet the omnipresent of God sanctifies and glorifies two manifestations of God. In Ruzbihan’s opinion, the acts of God are the epiphany of His attributes that are for their part, selfsame of His essence. Nonetheless, the unveiling of God’s attributes through the manifestation of His acts is not the same as God’s incarnation in any way. The intuition of light in their revelations sometimes is the development of their cognition from God to their souls and sometimes God is interpreted as light because of the intensity of His presence and the impossibility of God to be seen directly due to the existential capacity of the creatures, God browbeats the mystics who want to know more about Him while that they are not able to endure encountering the totality of God. Mechthild and Ruzbihan as creatures versus God have humility and modesty. In these writings which have many amorous terms, God yearns to communicate with the mystic. According to the interpretation of Ruzbihan, in the totality of the contexture of kashf and iltibas, the mystical experience is just the consequence of the grace, love and kindness of God. In both cases, God even before creation had sought Mechthild and Ruzbihan. They are divine favorites. God does not refuse their demands; this could show that the mercy attribute of God overcomes His justice feature. The love that has a longing and seeking in itself/herself soars to the spiritual marriage to God. Here, the place of the lover and beloved are always changing and these adorations and lovemaking go forward so much that the recognition of duality becomes impossible and the appearance of unity and union is revealed. The concepts of love and marriage in Mechthild’s book have a background that comes from the Bible and the tradition in Christianity. In Mechthild’s opinion, love has an independent character common among human beings and God. It is, thus, the operant of the union. The thinking structure of Ruzbihan is love and aestheticism, too. So, the understanding, experience, and realization of inward monotheism from unity are provided only by the experience of love. These amorous attitudes usually pass from the region of official religion. The mystical literature is usually full of allegories and metaphors related to wine like wineglass, butler, and wine so these two works are no exception, too. The similarity aspects of these revelations are God as a butler for His graciousness and development of the cognitive growth of the mystic. In these books, God sometimes appears as a minstrel and instrumentalist, of course with the unique and transcendental sound. Indeed, the revelation is not only visual but also auditory and of course existential. The wonder and astonishment of the mystic in the mystical journey occur after passing several states and stations and at the end of his/her conduct. This operant is due to the inability in the intellectual analysis of his/her mystical experience impressed by the presence of God. One of the genuine aspects of mysticism in the two religions of Islam and Christianity is the problem of the unity or union between the creator and creature. Eventually, Mechthild as a mystic considers the three persons of the Trinity as one God. But this divine union is the intertwinement of two separate persons, not complete annihilation and not melting in the godhead. Indeed, the final aim of the union is the experience of God’s love. Inward monotheism in the opinion of Ruzbihan is explanatory of wonder and God is love, lover, and the beloved simultaneously. In this situation, the contrast between multitudinous and one is removed, so both the one and the other are visible. Nonetheless, the self or soul of the human being is never annihilated perfectly, although too much presence of God overcomes this self and destroys it. Mechthild and Ruzbihan due to their thoughts and writing their revelations had foes and adversaries in their lives. But God always protects them with His supports. In the end, the mystical journey and conduct of Mechthild and Ruzbihan with any distance and intermediary with God, and with their passivity and transcendental wonder, eventually get to union or unity with Him. This article, adopting a comparative method, looks at the dialogue between these two mystics by analyzing the described experiences to better understand their concordant apocalyptical phenomena.

    Keywords: Mystical-Apocalyptical Experience, Ruzbihan Baqli, Kashf Al-asrar va Mukashifat Al-anwar (the Unveiling of Secrets, Revelations of Lights) Mechthild of Magdeburg, Revelation, Flowing Light of the Godhead
  • Ameneh Forouzankamali, Ali Khezri * Pages 181-194

    Examining the synthetic and rhetorical layers of literary works is a way to understand the inner layers of the creator’s thought, which plays an important role in conveying concepts and gives excellence to speech. The prayers and supplications of the Imams (AS) are all full of high mystical and spiritual teachings that have originated from the depths of their souls and the spirit that governs them. One of these rich works is the poetic prayers of Imam Ali (AS) which contain truths and teachings that express the monotheism and attention of human beings to the holy realm of God. Imam Ali (AS) in describing his supplication to God and the holy essence of God has expressed these prayers in the form of poetry. The balance and discipline of the emotional words in the prayers with the balance and discipline in the form of poetry have made this artwork more influential and effective. The present study, which is based on a descriptive-analytical method, intends to explain the stylistic components of poetic chants attributed to Imam Ali (AS) in combined and rhetorical layers. Answering the following questions forms the main basis of the present study: What are the stylistic features in the combined and rhetorical layers of these prayers? To what extent have the widely used elements of the combined and rhetorical layers of the chant been effective in conveying its content to the audience? Accordingly, the study uses literary and rhetorical tools and techniques related to the literature of discourse in order to explain the rhetorical and linguistic values of this work to prove its beauty and its rich meaning. The combined structure of prayers and the accompaniment of words play an important role in creating a space appropriate to the concepts and conveying meanings to the audience. In these prayers, 42% of Jaar and Majrūr (prepositional phrases) are at the beginning of the sentences. One of the reasons is the importance of the word and the prominence of the first component as well as the emotional attitude of Imam Ali (AS) towards the addressee who is Almighty God. The repeated use of the present tense also shows the speaker’s direct connection to reality. In these prayers, the frequency of using compositional sentences is more than imperative and conditional sentences, because the soul of all prayers is request and supplication. What is also taken from the meanings of declarative sentences is the expression of weakness and humility before God. In the poetic prayers of Imam Ali (AS), the method of enjoining good and forbidding wrong has been used 11 times. The questioning method has been used 5 times, which is associated with a kind of state of inner anxiety. The exclamation is also the key to starting most of the verses in the prayers, as out of the total 30 verses of these prayers, the exclamation phrases are mentioned 29 times. But in the rhetorical layer, one of the cases of imagery that Imam Ali (AS) has used in these prayers to induce his concepts is simile, mainly the additional type of simile. The imagery of Imam Ali (AS) in these prayers is based on the metaphor of Makni. Another stylistic characteristic of Imam Ali's (AS) prayers is the repetition of letters, among which the repetition of the inflection letter ‘Waw’ is more prominent and has been used 40 times in total throughout the prayers. The use of the paradox is also notable, which is often a behavioral conflict in which contrasting behaviors are opposed to each other. This is reflected in actions and attributes. The allusion also has a lower frequency in these prayers, but the phrase “The Day when neither wealth nor children will avail” refers to one of the Quran verses “The Day when neither wealth nor sons shall benefit” (Al-Shuara, 88), is a manifestation of this rhetorical device. In addition, the findings of the present study show that common sense has been effective in choosing the opposite words and their companionship in the center of the word, repeating sounds and words, etc. in the prayers of Imam Ali (AS) to God and seeking mercy and compassion. The present tense has a higher frequency than the other tenses, which indicates the poet’s lively mood.