نشریه مطالعات تاریخی جهان اسلام
پیاپی 14 (پاییز و زمستان 1398)

Unlike Western thinkers and their Muslim followers, who believe in a unique world civilization, Muhammad Amara speaks of the multiplicity of civilizations and he believes that the multiplicity of civilizations is a divine tradition in which there is no change and for this purpose, he mentions verses from the Holy Quran as evidence. Of course, this multiplicity, in his view, does not mean the contradiction or imitation and obedience of one civilization to another one; Rather, all civilizations share important issues, and distinctions show themselves in the specific characteristics of each civilization. Emara goes on to discuss a number of commonalities and differences to prove his claim to the multiplicity of civilizations.

There are no considerable documents of pre-Islamic Tous in historical sources. It seems that in the late Sassanid period, the city has been among the second-class cities and frontier districts along the Gorgan- Neyshabur route towards Marv, Nisa and Bakhtiari. After the conquest of Khorasan in the first century AH, this city, as one of the most important centers in Khorasan, as chosen by the Arabs, experienced a special boom that peaked during the Abbasid caliphate. In the early Islamic centuries, Tous was referred to a large area with four major cities called Tabaran, Noghan, Radakan and Taroghobaz, that today, the basis for considering Tous as a civic center has been inferred according to the data obtained from the studies of these centers. The importance of water resources of Tous plain in selecting this area given its proximity to Neishabur and Marv cannot be ignored since prior to the selection of this region to become a city this area must have the climatic potential to become a civic center. In the present research, authentic historical texts including literary, political and social sources, surveys of Sassanid sites of Dasht-e Tous, as well as review and analysis of the views of contemporary scholars have been used. The type of research in this paper is descriptive-analytic. The main objective of the current paper is to identify and study the water resources in Tous plain, by examining written and non-written sources. Finally, the results of this study considered the water resources of the Tous plain in the early formation of Tous as a civic center, among the most important reasons for site selection of Tous.

Muslim writers from the earliest centuries, along with political, cultural, and social history, have payed attention to the economic and financial aspects of Islamic rule, and have edited many manuscripts on economic and financial matters under the titles: Property, ransom, Industries, Zakat, khums, weights and values and exchanges (prices) and like these. There are subdivisions of taxation like preparation of works in the case of Dinar & dirham, Bazaar, tax and cession than Khums, Zakat and ransom. the conquests and issues ahead, legislative and political needs of the Islamic rule and journalism are the three main factors for writer’s attention to preparation of works in Dinar & dirham, bazaar, tax and cession. The political and governmental aspect of Dinar & dirham, market, tax, and cession, had the greatest influence on the approach, purpose, position and religious attitudes of the writers and the multiplicity of fiscal works. Because tax has been as the most important financial resources of Islamic government. whereas the above four financial issues, including bureaucratic affairs, have been governed by rule of the time, we intend to deal with the subject and types of taxation( dinar & dirham, bazaar, tax and cession) in the first four centuries AH. For this purpose, we use a descriptive-analytical method and firsthand resources with a library study way. in the first four centuries AH.

Different views on the issue of predestination and liberty have spread to the realm of history with little difference. Historians have different tendencies depending their regard to history as the arena of human play or the manifestation of God’s will. Providence is a general term for referring to a range of approaches that make God's will effective in historical events. fatalism can be considered as one side of this range, which considers man with no will, and captive in God's providence and conditional legalism is the other side of this range which, while believing in the will of human beings, considers God that have general attention in all fields and direct involvement in some affairs. This article has tried to examine the belief in divine providence in the works of Muslim historians in the third to sixth centuries AH using the method of qualitative content analysis as well as quantitative. The research findings indicate that Tabari and Beihaqi can be considered among the historians of fatalism, and Yaqubi, Masoudi, Miskawayh, and Moghaddasi can be considered as conditional law-abiding historians.

From the fifth century onwards, the Sufis in Lahore, like other cities of subcontinent India, were revered by various religions and sects. Therefore, building shrines and going to them has been desirable. Every year, glorious gatherings are held on the birthday or death of the Sufis in honor of them that people of subcontinent India call them “Ors”. Today, the holding of Ors for the famous tombs of Lahore is formed as a culture. This article seeks to answer the question of what historical analysis of Ors ritual for the famous tombs in Lahore can be presented with a descriptive-analytical method. The results of this study show that the culture of pilgrimage and annual commemoration existed before the arrival of Islam in the India subcontinent, which also permeated the new culture, namely the Islamic-Hindu culture. Impressionability from the culture of India and tombs-oriented Islam is one of the important roots of the social and cultural position of the Sufis and the support of the Gurkhans (1274-932 AH). The expansion and formation of religious tourism, cultural centers, and the culture of (master and disciple) have been important consequences of the Ors ritual.

From the earliest days of the formation of human civilization, human beings have tried to keep things secret from others in various ways. Among these, riddles and conundrums are among the oldest, which include some traditions, customs and history of a society. In this article, it has been tried to explain briefly the position of this art or science in the Safavid period. In other words, it is going to answer this question: "What was the position of the science of riddle and conundrum in the Safavid era?" It seems that what continued as a riddle from the beginning to the end of the Safavid period (907-1148 AH) was an old tradition that became popular by writing of remained works of the past and was retained and accepted as a science, art and technology among the teachings and texts.

Egypt was on a widespread social unrest on the threshold of the Fatimids’ arrival and Johar Saqli, the representative of the Fatimid caliph in Egypt, tried to make security and peace by presenting a security strategy and to institutionalize the Ismaili religion and the position of the Fatimid Caliph through it. This article explains the characteristics of social security from the Johar Seghelli viewpoint and his strategies in establishing political and military authority, social security, institutionalizing the Ismaili religion and consolidating the position of the Fatimid caliph. The results of the study indicate that Johar with a strategy of social security indicators, such as: freedom of thought and behavior, military political power and authority, empowerment and opportunity, justice, coexistence and solidarity, hope for the future, social and psychological peace, The hope for a savior, the fight against the oppressors, as well as the characteristics of military security, such as: military authority against threats, the fight against social insecurity, the fight against the opposition and the disruptors of order and security, and the establishment of the Court of Oppression, started to institutionalize the religion of Ismailis in Egypt.

One of the noteworthy issues of Western tourists who have been in Iran, is how Georgians become Muslim, especially during and after the Safavid era. Most of these tourists have described Georgians as unstable and weak in their religion and consider their converting to Islam to be expedient and for benefits. From the viewpoint of Western tourists, Georgians at that time longed for a return to Christianity. However, the results of this study show that Georgians living in Iran during the reign of Shah Abbas I, especially Georgians migrating to different regions such as Isfahan and Mazandaran, contrary to this claim, were mainly from the weak class of Georgia and were not happy with the Christianity as the religion of the upper class and the rulers of Georgia. They have chosen Islam at the right time and, contrary to the claims of some Western tourists, have been steadfast in their new religion and specifically the Shiite religion, and in the long run have been a source of valuable services. Although in some cases there has been a return to Islam (due to the class differences in Georgia), it has been mainly related to some of the elders and relatives of the Georgian rulers who were forced to stay in Iran for some reason and rarely changed their religion according to their interests.

By controlling the routes and taking advantage of them, the strategic position of the Fatimid realm, especially the Red Sea ports, led them to play an active and influential role in the trade process of the Islamic world and beyond and to reach to their goals by earnings of the trade. The Fatimid Caliphate's approach to trade, as a constant and important variable, enabled Egyptian ports to flourish in the Red Sea and at the same time, it had a negative effect on the ports of Persia and caused their gradual decline. The present study uses a descriptive-analytical method to study the reasons for the Fatimids' attention to trade and to find an answer to this question: What are the reasons for the Fatimids' attention to trade? And what effect has this policy had on the ports of Fars province?

Women in the Fatimid dynasty of Egypt (358-567 AH / 1781-1998 AH) became the source of widespread political, social and cultural influences in Egyptian society, due to their wealth and social status.  This article seeks to analyze the functions of women in the Fatimid caliphate to show what functions their position in Egyptian politics, society and culture of the Fatimid, has determined for them. (Question) The use of dignity and influence in the court of the caliphate, gave Fatimid women, (like other lands in the Islamic world ), superior power and position. (Hypothesis) The functions of women in the Fatimid dynasty are considered in this study in order to provide purposeful recognition in this context of the Fatimid Egyptian society. (Method) The result of the research is to identify the functional species of women of the Fatimid family in Egypt .In this study, the political, social and cultural functions of Fatimid women were identified. These functions indicate the results of women's exploitation of social power and status in Egyptian Fatimid society. (Achievement).

The knowledge of Sahaba-writing is one of the important fields of knowledge among Islamic sciences, along with jurisprudence and hadith, which has a history of more than ten centuries. The scholars of the Islamic world during this period have paid special attention to it, which has been due to its effect on other fields of knowledge. With great effort and with the rise and fall of this knowledge, they have compiled hundreds of books on the knowledge of Prophet’s companions (PBUH). In this part of the Islamic studies, Iranians have made such an effort that they have had a very significant portion compared to other Islamic tribes and nations so much so that some of their Shaba-writings are considered as the main sources and references of other Sahaba-writers. They have taken effective steps to advance this knowledge, in terms of both structure and content. This article is a brief statement of the role and scientific endeavor of Iranians in the knowledge of Sahaba-writing. The purpose of this article is to introduce the important works of Iranians and their role in the knowledge of Sahaba-writing. It is clear that it is not possible to explain all their writings in this article. Therefore, only to get closer to the goal, after presenting a list of Iranian Sahaba-writings, it will be briefly introduced and explained the names of some famous Iranian Sahaba-writers and their books - which have had a significant impact on the subsequent ones.

The Kharijite movement, which came to power in the first half of the first century AH, after repressing the central cities of the Caliphate went to distant lands and the outskirts of the Islamic world, such as North Africa. The Khawarij, who later formed the Safavid-religion BaniMedrar state (296-1406 AD) and the Abadi-religion Bani-Rostam state (146-296 AH) in North Africa, initially published their revolutionary ideas in order to gain the support of the Berbers. Because these ideas were compatible with the will of the barbarians to revolt against the Islamic caliphate. But over time, these thoughts lost their original revolutionary form and became friendly and balanced in their dealings with the Abbasid caliphate and their agents. This research, using a descriptive-analytical method and using library study tools, seeks to explain why early Khawarij political thought in North Africa changed. Findings show that Khawarij, after entering the field of politics and being in the new political atmosphere and also the emergence of new competitors such as Idrisid Dynasty and the Fatimids, influenced by pragmatic requirements, changed and modified their first attitude.