نشریه معرفت ادیان
سال یازدهم شماره 2 (پیاپی 43، تابستان 1399)

Regardless of the method of explanation, god-like man is one of the teachings common among Sufism, Merkabah, Kabbalah and Gnosticism. The commonalities and differences of this idea in the form of proposing a holy example of man can be seen under such interpretations as Adam Kadmon, Anthropos and the first man in Jewish mysticism, Gnosticism and Sufism. The present paper contains  a comparative study of this idea. The results show that despite the common points, a fundamental difference can be found among these ideas. The inability of the Gnostics to separate the Almighty God from his first creation (Anthropos) has led them to dualism. The Merkabah have tried to make distinctions between the one God and Adam Kadmon, but in practice they have not been able to separate the two. While believing in monotheism, The Kabbalah have proposed the "An-Suf" and failed to state its relation to Jehovah, and therefore have made themselves liable to accusations of getting away from the monotheism, but have tried to remove this accusation. In Sufism, the resemblance of the first intellect to God has caused some sheikhs to assume that the first intellect is God , but resorting  to monotheism has ultimately led them to God Almighty.

In general, the accusations against Islamic law regarding capital crimes are rooted in two issues: First, the similarity of the Jewish and Islamic penal systems in criminal policies, definition of capital crimes, and even the quality of executions, which has extended the characteristics of Jewish law including its violence to Islamic law; Second, executions in systems based on Islamic law. A comparative study of the provisions of Jewish and Islamic law in capital crimes shows that Westerns’ doubt about religious rights is mainly rooted in the unjustifiable provisions of the Torah, such as the execution of animals, juveniles, and the repeated execution of non-Jews. However, these rulings which clearly violate certain legal principles are not approved by Islamic  law. The Western thinkers' doubt and skepticism about Jewish rights cannot be extended to Islam. On the other hand, the poor performance of Islam-based systems is often the result of thematic laws that have nothing to do with Islamic jurisprudence.

The classical scholars of Pentateuch , and at the head of them Julius Wellhausen believed that a critical examination of Pentateuch documents indicated a religious development during which Yahweh monotheism eventually led to moral monotheism. According to Kaufman, the morphological analysis of the world's religions does not confirm the theory of religious progress, and shows two different religious forms (monotheism and polytheism). Monotheism, which began with the activities of Moses, also includes other religions (Christianity and Islam), the rest of the religions fall into the category of polytheism. According to his analysis, the Hebraic religion is essentially different from the religion of the ancient world, so it cannot be a logical development; especially because historical evidence does not support such a development. He believed that despite their elements of Polytheism, the religious world of the Hebrews was the result of their own ideas, and external elements did not play a fundamental and creative role in its religious culture. However, contrary to his claim, his theory is not consistent with historical evidence and the Bible, and  has at least three main weaknesses: First, he mistakenly equates old Israel with historical Israel, second, he emphasizes differences in distinguishing the Hebraic worldview from that of their neighbors and ignores interactions, while comparative studies show the interaction of Hebrew intellectual and religious patterns with neighbors; Third, the theory of the absolute distinction of Israeli monotheism from ancient polytheism seems to reflect his theological concern.

The concept of "soul" is one of the important topics discussed in detail by thinkers in different religions and philosophical schools. Because of its importance, philosophers and theologians have argued about the nature and characteristics of the soul. Saadia Gaon, a medieval Jewish philosopher, is one of the Jewish scholars who has addressed this issue. His views on the issue of the soul are among the most controversial views of Saadia, which have caused controversy among scholars. After discussing the views of the Greek philosophers, he refutes their theories with rational reasoning and narrative allusions, and then proposes his theory of the soul. The present paper examines Saadia Gaun's views on the soul, his intellectual backgrounds, as well as the extent of the originality of his ideas about the subject under discussion. He seems to have a synthetic approach to the issue of the soul.

Zionist Christianity has essentially been formed based on the belief in "world peace" in the light of Christ's millennial kingdom. Using documentary analysis, the following paper analyzes and reviews the foundations of world peace in Zionist Christianity. The idea of world peace in this school of thought is based on the prophecies of the prophets in the Bible, God's special revelation in Christ, millennialism, Christianity, prudence, the evil nature of the world and its domination by evil powers, and the explicit teachings of Christ and the apostles about peace. Some of these principles, such as the call of Christ and the apostles to peace, and the return of Christ and his role in world peace, are, of course, based on plausible interpretations. But they have ignored one biblical principle, i.e. the equality and brotherhood of all mankind to the one God, one parent and one leader. Other principles, from the point of view of reason, the Bible, as well as other Christian groups, have some flaws that are discussed in this study.

One of the important issues of Jainism is the knowledge of the soul considered in the texts of this religion. The more a wayfarer makes efforts for spiritual purification and  elimination of spiritual karmic agents, the more the element of spiritual consciousness which includes perception and knowledge is manifested , and he will be able to achieve abilities such as seeing long distances only with the help of the element of knowledge of the soul without the intervention of the senses , read the others’ minds, and know about the past and even future bodies of oneself and others. It should be noted that the ultimate goal of Jainism is to achieve the state of the soul’s complete break from  Karmic traps and to reach the level of Moksha; a goal that is manifest in all Jain teachings. The epistemology of the soul for a Jain wayfarer is a part of his endeavor to attain the triple gems of Jainism (right faith  right knowledge and right conduct ).