فصلنامه گلستان هنر
سال ششم شماره 2 (پیاپی 18، زمستان 1398)

In every ancient civilization, there is different perception of time the outward manifestation of which is to be seen in their historic texts and artworks. In the present essay the general definitions of time in different cultures are first offered and summarized. Considering the structure of “Persian garden”, an Irānshahri (Greater Iran) perception of time, quite distinct from others’, is then offered. Studying the origin and history of the word “bāgh” (an etymological approach towards the Persian equivalent of “garden”), it’s been demonstrated that garden or pardis for the Iranian was not the manifestation of heavenly paradise, but deep reverence for the earth. Furthermore, as a result of having connection with natural environment of Iran, relation to digging subterranean canals, a combination of water, air, soil and light, as well as the continuation of a pattern from the Achaemenid period onward, the Persian garden has a pivotal role through the study of which the essence of Persian ideology in addition to cultural, ethical and legal concepts are revealed.

The Haft Awrang by Persian poet, Jami (817-897 AH/1414-1492 AD), contains seven masnavies (couplet poems) in imitation of Khamsa of Nizami, and is composed in 875-892 AH/1471-1487 AD. Commissioned by the heir apparent,Ebrāhim Mirzā, in the Safavid period, Haft Awrang manuscript was illustrated by painters such as Sheikh-Mohammad, Mozaffar-Ali, Mirzā-Ali, Aqā-Mirak, Abdol-Aziz and probably Qadimi-ye Naqqāsh, and transcribed by calligraphers like Mālek Deylami, Shāh Mahmud Neyshāburi, Moheb-Ali and Rostam-Ali in 972 AH/1565 AD. Now preserved in the Freer Library, Washington D.C. and known as the Ebrāhim Mirza Haft Awrang, it includes twenty-eight illustrated folios three of which have been definitely painted in the open air (En plein air) in gardens and among buildings. The present essay first examines the formation of the collection in Qazvin school, and then describes the three paintings: “Father giving advice to his son about love” (attributed to Mirzā- Ali), “The unfortunate lover falls from the roof” (attributed to Sheikh-Mohammad), “The urban citizen and garden” (attributed to Sheikh-Mohammad or Abol-Aziz). A careful study on such paintings, being in relationship to the formation of Persian garden in miniature painting, demonstrates that the connection among human being, nature and architecture in traditional miniature painting has been innovatively manifested in the mentioned painting cases.

Creating an area or sphere replete with clump of trees and a variety of leaves and flowers has been reminiscent of the heavenly paradise for the perfectionist. This matter has been influential in man’s life and been manifested in his work and achievements. Textiles and fabric pieces are among the artifacts to function as a canvas for painters and designers to represent the celestial domain of garden. Regarding the significant, close connection between painting and textile design, it would seem necessary to study schools of painting together with textile designs and motifs. Accordingly, painting has been fairly influential upon textile design and been manifested in the form of vegetal motifs with a pleasant, evergreen atmosphere. The tree motif, with connotations of life and eternity (tree of life), as an example, has been manifested in natural or stylized manners on textiles. The construction of a library, or better to say, an art center besides a painting workshop in Tabriz was a turning point in textile design. Garden representation and a place covered with flowers and plants, as well as arabesque motifs in the few textiles remained from this period are the main designs applied symbolically. Following the cultural-artistic revival of the Mongol conquest, and then that of the Timurid, schools of art at Samarqand and Bukhara flourished. Enjoying a rich cultural background, such artistic schools inclined towards the ancient literature. Meanwhile, the Herat school with an attitude towards the representation of “idealized man” had great effect on textile motifs. Humanism in this school brought about the creation of a mystic, heavenly atmosphere for garden, representing human motif in different scenes of feast, battle and hunting. With the conquest of Herat in Safavid era, the essence of such artistic practice was transmitted to Tabriz and continued under the title Tabriz-Yazd and Tabriz-Kashan schools in textile workshops of Yazd and Kashan in the second Tabriz painting style. Yazd in that time had a unique school of textile design the pioneer of which was Qiās-od-Din Ali Naqshband Yazdi. He presented an atmosphere of imaginative, mystic gardens in his work. The Isfahan school, as well, flourished in that time with an emphasis on the representation of human’s motif and his presence in the nature. This school could offer masterpieces of textile designs. In Qajar textiles the display of human being declined, while gardens with dense, intertwined trees besides arabesque and khatāi designs appeared. Such motifs were occasionally juxtaposed with zoomorphic designs, and rarely with human forms. It seems that in such pieces of fabrics a mere representation of a garden or a mysterious jungle has been considered.

Fereydun Sorushiyān Garden House is a historic, cultural place dating back to Pahlavi period. In a transfer from tradition to modernity, it was built on the basis of European plan in combination with Persian architectural elements. This place belongs to the Zoroastrian minority in Kerman and is located in the vicinity of fire temple neighborhood at the northern margin of Shohadā (Zarisaf) St. near other garden houses in the region. Unfortunately, this house is abandoned today and it suffers severe erosion and damage. Writing an article on such a place may facilitate appropriate recognition of it as a model for Zoroastrian houses in Iran and Kerman. The building and garden were constructed in 1300-1308 SH (1921-1929 AD) by the late Fereydun Sorushiyān. Its completion lasted until 1313 SH (1934-35 AD). Its designer was an English person and the building is in English style as well. The construction process coincided with the building of Irān-Shahr high school and Morsalin Hospital in Kerman. It was occupied by the Governmental Management Training Center for a certain period of time and also was used as Shahid Bāhonar Faculty of Art and Architecture (Sabā) during 1378-1382 SH (1999- 2003 AD). Meanwhile, some changes occurred in the construction of the building as a result of administrative functions. The main building of the garden is a central kiosk located along the eastern to western axis with four external, separate facades. In the construction of the building, despite sharing a close, formal affinity with European buildings, local material and patterns besides native Persian decoration have been applied. In constructing the place, the application of brick-work, appearing once again in the Pahlavi period, is evident. Furthermore, all the spaces in the main kiosk, apart from the upper arch in first floor staircase, ground floor understairs and the first stairway landing, are decorated with Kalil-e Āzari (a type of Persian drop arch) arches. Other principal features to be mentioned in this building are as follows: using double-leafed doors with wooden decoration, using special symbols and characteristics from the Zoroastrian culture besides genuine Persian motifs in exterior and interior decoration, and observing private sphere in interiors despite the exterior characteristic of the central kiosk.

Every garden owes its formation and life to water. Nonetheless, the relation between garden and the region where it’s been located exerts influence upon the role of water. Giving insufficient attention to region, its cultivation, causing vast demolition, changes in gardens’ formation process and nottaking the differences among various types very seriously have all led to paying more attention to the interiors. Such unwelcome attention not only has brought about the demolition of historic gardens’ surroundings, but spoiled our understanding of water and qanāts (subterranean canals) as substructures of life in the vast plateau of Iran. In the present article a classic type of garden formed by qanāt has been studied, so that the role of qanāt and its relationship with the formation of garden will be revealed. First, by referring to the connection among garden, cultivation and different types of agriculture and planting, a kind of water-required agriculture in mountainous areas is introduced. The garden and district of Fin are considered an old example for this type of agriculture. Such a type is among the various ones applied in the central plateau of Iran, containing many basins. A study on the historical background of Fin and the features of the earth there demonstrates that the region is an oasis in front of an alluvial fan located on the slope of mountain. It plays a significant role in the formation of the village or habitat of Fin. In this article water sources of Kāshān and the qanāt technology have been studied briefly to show us where the origin of Fin or Solaymān spring is, and how water is transmitted to the Fin. Furthermore, historical geography resources have been examined to demonstrate that the most important features of the district have strong connections with Fin spring. The condition of the district has also been studied during the Qājār era from which accurate information is available. In this case, historical sources help the manifestation of a general picture of different elements formed in the Fin district. In order to complete the mentioned picture, the Fin spring and related hydraulic structures as well as gardens’ surroundings and farms have been studied according to aerial photos and field studies. The result of the study reveals an environmental structure composed of the original historic garden; qanāt series; other gardens including formal ones, garden-houses and fruit gardens; farms; hydraulic structures such as water partings, watermills and levees. A combination of such elements in a piece of land located on desert on the slope of mountain offers the opportunity to live in an arid area. In the last section of the article the role of water would be studied inside gardens and the related hydraulic structures. This section is relevant to the aforementioned topics as well as to qanāt water, however having a different scale. A comparison of the two scales reveals that the role of water is far beyond the garden walls, extending on the area the garden has been located on. The results show as well that all the related elements to qanāt water and the mentioned environment are interconnected.

Abdollāh Tabbākh Heravi was a 9th AH/15th AD century calligrapher who worked at the Timurid kitābatkhāneh (transcription center) in Herat. He was an apprentice of Ja’far Bāysonquri. In addition to the application of the aqlāme sitteh (the six pens), he was also fairly skilled at nasta’liq script. The climax of his artistic career coincides with uproars in Herat and consequently, the dispersal of artists from Bāysonqur’s workshop. Therefore, he could be regarded as a connection between two periods of heyday at Herat court. Today a Quranic manuscript in his handwriting is preserved in Āstāne Qods Razavi, Mashhad. This manuscript has been accomplished on the order of Alāod-dawleh, Bāysonqur’s son, and the deputy, Shāhrokh Teymuri in 845 AH/1442 AD. The present essay examines the status of Abdollāh Tabbākh Heravi in the Timurid history of calligraphy, and does so the mentioned Quran and its particular features.

In the National Archive of Iran there is a record which contains the state of accounts for the expenditure of restoring a part of the Royal Chādorkhāneh (a warehouse to store royal tents) as well as a considerable number of paintings from Golestān, Farah-Ā􀇊 bād and Sāhebqarāniyeh palaces dating back to 1316-17 SH (1937-39 ĀD). The record includes eight letters, two statements of accounts and a detailed inventory of restoring evaluation of works presented in twelve sheets of paper. The most important content of the letters was to arrange a plan to appoint technical commissions and to deliver a report to the Imperial Court and the Ministry of Finance. Regarding the date and the content of extant documents, the statement of accounts for the evaluation of expenditure of restoring the Royal Chādorkhāneh has been prepared and sent in less than a month. Nevertheless, the evaluation of the expenditure of restoring artworks in royal palaces seems to have taken more time than usual and the establishment of the commission encountered problems as well. Āpparently, Hossein Sheikh, the painter, and Nejāt-Āli, the frame maker, as representatives of the Ministry of Industry, have worked sometime in private palace, examining and evaluating all the extant paintings of Golestān, Farah-Ā􀇊 bād and Sāhebqarāniyeh palaces. They found 464 works in need of restoration. The present table is the minimum evaluation of the expenditure by the two connoisseurs for preparing required equipment to restore the works in royal palaces in 1316 SH (1937-38 ĀD). In the list the numbers of paintings’ tags except 33 cases, have been identified first. Then a short description of the title or subject of paintings and the probable place and the amount of damage has been mentioned. Besides, the numbers of some paintings’ plaques, different from tags’ numbers, are provided. Finally, the expenditure relating to each work has been presented under titles as “expenditure on oil and lacquer”, “expenditure on restoration of the painting” and “expenditure on restoring the frame”. The approximate evaluation of the expenditure for each painting varies from 5 to 200 rials with the total amount of 4476/5 rials. It was supposed to offer the restoration process to the representatives of the Ministry of Industry. Therefore, a monthly amount of 500 rials was dedicated for each of the experts. The due time allotted to restoring the paintings and the frames was respectively 15 and 5 months, hence the total amount of 14476/5 rials. Despite all this, it seems that the evaluation of the total sum in rows no. 81, 146 and 255 is not accurate, so we should reduce 1/5 rials from the total expenditure of the restoration. At the end of the above statement of accounts it has implicitly been mentioned that there was no urgent need for such restoration. Hence, it seems improbable that such a process has been undertaken at all.

Qājār crafts have gained the considerable attention of scholars due to cultural and social changes in that period. Such changes are evident in all aspects of life during the 19th and 20th centu and classes’ interests underwent rapid development as a result of establishing connections with the West. Furthermore, related methods and manners in the industry, most specifically artistic crafts, evolved. Publication of new books for the introduction of the crafts Qājār rulers had visited during their trips to Europe and to International exhibitions was another innovation. Ganj-os-Sanāye’e Mozaffariyeh was one of such books never published. Mohammad Golpāygāni had commissioned one of the statesmen to compile that book. As the author prepared the inventory of the book to satisfy his patron, we now know what the chapters’ content was supposed to be. According to the inventory, we can guess that the chapters were so similar to another book’s content, named Montahi-al-Manāfe’ fi Anvā-es-Sanāye’ formerly published at the same time in Egypt governed by the Ottomans, by using French texts. The Persian compiler, however, don’t mention the Arabic manuscript. Since no one supported the publication of such a book, the inventory was returned to the writer. In that time new sciences, as the foundation of many great and fine crafts, were taught at the Dār-ol-Fanun (the Polytechnic School). Subjects proposed in the inventory of the book are fairly diverse, mostly dedicated to handicrafts and related arts, including glassblowing, manufacture of mirrors, pottery, enamel-work, gilding, varnish- work, making ink, dyeing, whitesmith- work, using different metals such as copper and lead in arts and printing houses, engraving, lithography, jewelry, photography, soldering, ivory-work, tanning, and incrustation by using electricity. Some of the abovementioned subjects and crafts are evident in historical treatises. Such works had been written from the 4th/10th AD century up to the beginning of Qājār period. Therefore, in the present article some of these resources have been introduced as well. Here the author had some difficulty translating a technical text, probably from French to Arabic. There are many words in the text the European equivalents of which might be more relevant to convey the meaning. In some cases, transcriptions might seem unusual to us. However, the significance of such a text not only lies in the mentioned words and terms, but in the general, practical methods of working in some crafts, as in dyeing.