فصلنامه فرآیند و کارکرد گیاهی
سال نهم شماره 4 (پیاپی 38، مهر و آبان 1399)

The increasing demand for medicinal plants has amplified the importance of the development of effective methods for enhancing the cultivation of these plants. The association of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi with medicinal plants has been found to alter the level of secondary metabolites by affecting the plant metabolism. Lemon balm (Melissa officinalis L.), is an important medicinal plant belongs to Lamiaceae family that has been used since the Middle Ages for various medical purposes. In this study, the effects of Glomus mosseae and Glomus intraradices symbiosis on growth, the content of some phenolic compounds and the activities of some enzymes responsible for polyphenols synthesis were investigated in lemon balm. Seeds were sown in a mixture of soil and fungal inoculum. After five months of growth under controlled condition, growth parameters, the contents of total phenols, flavonoids, phenolic acids and anthocyanins, the concentrations of rosmarinic acid, salvianolic acid B and caffeic acid and activities of phenylalanine ammonia lyase and tyrosine aminotransferase were investigated in control and AM plants. According to the results, the symbiosis of lemon balm with selective AM species was successful. The highest percentage of colonization and the improvement of growth parameters were observed in the plants inoculated with G. mosseae. Symbiotic plants showed more increased levels of polyphenols and enzymes activities than control plants. The study revealed that colonization of plants with AM species not only improved growth, but also increased the content of polyphenols which is closely linked to the enzymes activities responsible for synthesis of these compounds. These results confirmed the importance of the mycorrhizal symbiosis in enhancing the nutritional and medicinal values of the plant.

To investigate the effects of chemical, organic and biological fertilizers application on the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of seedless barberry (Berberis vulgaris cv. Asperma) an experiment was conducted as split plot randomized complete block design with three replications in commercial garden in Qaen during 2016. Main-treatments comprised four application type of fertilizer (1-no fertilizer application as main control, and application of 2-Chemical fertilizer; 70 kg ha-1 urea, 52.5 kg ha-1 triple super phosphate, 77 kg ha-1 potassium sulfate), 3-organic fertilizer; 3500 kg ha-1 cow dung and 4-50% of chemical along with 50% of organic fertilizer; 1750 kg ha-1 cow dung, 35 kg ha-1 urea, 26.25 kg ha-1 triple super phosphate, 37.5 kg ha-1 potassium sulfate). Sub-treatments were 1-no fertilizer as sub control, application of 2-Phosphate Barvar-2; 700 g ha-1, 3-humic acid; 4 kg ha-1, and Phosphate Barvar-2 + humic acid; 700 g ha-1 + 4 kg ha-1. The main and sub-treatments had significant effect on most traits. The highest vitamin C content, berries pH, and dry yield of berries belonged to 50% application of chemical and organic along with Phosphate Barvar2 + humic acid. The highest amount of chlorophyll a, total chlorophyll and leaf carotenoid, carbohydrate, fruit soluble solids content, fruit maturity index and carbohydrate to total acidity ratio were observed in plants treated with organic fertilizer along with Phosphate Barvare2+humic acid. Plants treated with 50% (manure + chemical fertilizer) along with humic acid had the highest leaf chlorophyll b and berries protein. Chemical fertilizer treatment along with Phosphate Barvar2 had the highest acidity of berries. These findings suggested that plants treated with 50% (organic + chemical fertilizer) along with Phosphate Barvar2+humic acid and organic fertilizer along with Phosphate Barvar2+humic acid had the highest positive effect on yield and berries quality, respectively.

Gerbera is an important commercial cut flower that its vase life is usually short due to vascular occlusion. In this study, we assessed the effect of ethanol (2%) in prolonging the vase life, fresh weight, relative water uptake and some physiological and biochemical factors in the stem of two cultivars of gerbera cut flowers (‘Bayadère’ and ‘Sunway’). Ethanol extended the vase life of cut flowers of both cultivars as compared with their control and its effect was better on ‘Sunway’ than on ‘Bayadère’. Application of ethanol in vase solution decreased proline content in the stem of cut flowers of both cultivars, showing alleviation of water stress in ethanol-treated cut flowers. The use of ethanol in vase solution decreased polyphenol oxidase and increased phenylalanine ammonialyase activity, which was followed by increase in total phenols and flavonoids and finally was resulted in improved postharvest performance of ethanol-treated gerbera cultivars. In addition, we observed a decrease in malondialdehyde accumulation in the stem of ethanol-treated gerbera cultivars, which was associated with the better performance of antioxidant systems in these cut flowers because oxidative stress is one of the causes that reduce postharvest performance in cut flowers. Therefore, the application of ethanol is suggested as a cheap and environmentally friendly approach to improve postharvest performance of cut flowers.

Gladiolus is cultivated as a high-value ornamental plant in the worldwide and it has the highest cultivation area and the highest level of underground organs imports in Iran. In this study, in order to investigate indirect regeneration of Amsterdam and Advance Red cultivars an experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design with three replications. For callogenesis, bud sprout (apical section), corm slices (middle section) and basal plate (bottom section) explants of corm with 1 cm2 dimensions were cultured in MS medium with different concentrations of Picloram, Dicamba, BAP , kinetin, NAA and 2,4,5-T. At the regeneration stage, different concentrations of TDZ and GA3 were combined with Proline and Glutamine amino acids. Based on the results, in the medium containing 1 or 2 mg L-1 of Dicamba, the bud sprout explant showed the highest callogenesis (77.77% and 75.91% in Amsterdam and Advance Red, respectively). The highest percentage of regeneration (81.11% and 75.57% in Amsterdam and Advance Red, respectively) and the highest number of shoots (23.69 and 20.19 in Amsterdam and Advance Red, respectively) were obtained in 1 mg L-1 TDZ + 0.5 mg L-1 GA3 + 200 mg L-1 Proline + 200 mg L-1 Glutamine. The highest percentage of rooting (84.41% and 82.50% in Amsterdam and Advance Red, respectively) were produced in MS medium supplemented with 2 mg L-1 IAA + 500 mg L-1 activated charcoal. Produced plantlets from indirect regeneration were successfully adapted in greenhouse condition.

In this study, we compared the impact of high Cu concentrations on the photosynthetic apparatus and antioxidant capacity of the Phlomis tuberosa. Plants were grown in perlite culture for 5 weeks, and then treated with 0, 100, 200, 300 and 400 µM Cu for 21 days. Results indicated that Phlomis tuberosa plants showed tolerance to 100 and 200 µM Cu. This increased tolerance was achieved through enhancement in antioxidant system activity. However, exposure to high Cu (300 and 400 µM) showed the highest level of stress leading to higher hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels and lower inferred oxygen evolving complex activity (Fv/Fo) and calculated Performance Index (PIabs) values. Based on effective concentration (EC50 – substrate Cu concentration resulting in 50% biomass reduction) parameter, Cu toxicity thresholds for Phlomis tuberosa plants were determined at substrate Cu levels up to 300 µM. Interestingly, plants exposed to medium Cu levels for 21 days exhibited higher nitric oxide (NO) accumulation in the leaves, which was associated with enhanced levels of antioxidative enzyme activities, whilst maintaining photosynthesis.

In order to investigate the postharvest effect of sodium nitroprusside on vase life of cut rose, Utopia and Dolce Vita cultivars, an experiment was conducted as factorial in a completely randomized design with three factors and six replications. The first factor was included two cultivars of cut flowers of rose.  The second factor was four concentrations of sodium nitroprusside 0 (control) 20, 40 and 60 μM, which was applied by pulse treatment. The third factor was the time of application at 24 and 48 hours. The results of this research showed that sodium nitroprusside treatment had a significant effect on vase life, catalase activity, ion leakage and flower diameter at 1% probability level and for fresh and dry weight of flower and stem, Ascorbate peroxidase activity and water absorption rate had a significant effect at 5% probability level. The highest vase life of Utopia cultivar was in 40 μM sodium nitroprusside in 48 hours and in Dolce Vita, it was related to sodium nitroprusside concentration of 60 μM in 48 hours. The most antioxidant enzymes activity such as catalase and ascorbate peroxidase were obtained at concentrations of 40 and 60 μM sodium nitroprusside. In general, the results of this study showed that in Utopia using 40 μM sodium nitroprusside for 48 hours and in Dolce Vita 60 μM sodium nitroprusside for 48 hours were the best treatments that could improve the traits studied.

One of the most suitable methods for reducing the effects of copper (Cu) stress is the use of mycorrhizal fungus. This research was conducted to study the effect of Glomus mosseae mycorrhizal fungus on growth and some physiological parameters of pistachio (Pistacia vera) in response to increasing soil Cu concentration. The experiment was carried out as factorial in a completely randomized design with three levels of Cu (0, 300, 600 mg/L CuNO3) and two levels of mycorrhizal inoculation (inoculated and non-inoculated). According to the results, the mycorrhizal colonization percentage was significantly higher in the control than the Cu treatments. In all plants treated with Cu, the length and dry weight of the roots and shoots of mycorrhizal plants were higher than non-mycorrhizal plants. Cu stress also reduced the content of chlorophyll a and b, carotenoids, total protein, phosphorus concentration, total sugars, proline and phenolic compounds, but mycorrhizal symbiosis leads to significant increase of these parameters. Cu stress increased the peroxidation of lipids, malondialdehyde (MDA), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), peroxidase (POD), ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) in all plants. However, the levels of MDA, H2O2 and catalase (CAT) in mycorrhizal plants were significantly lower than non-mycorrhizal plants. According to the results the amount of Cu transferred from roots to stems(Translocated Factor) in pistachio ,regardless of mycorrhizal colonization, was less than one (TF≤1) and the Biococentration factor  was greater than one (BCF ≥ 1), so pistachio can be a Cu stabilizer and symbiosis with Glomus mosseae caused the accumulation of more Cu in the roots.

Strawberry is highly perishable with huge post-harvest losses. So preserving quality and increasing in storability by using of safe compounds is important. In this case, the effect of salicylic acid and GABA (0, 0.5 and 1 mM) as a factorial experiment in completely randomized design were analyzed on longevity and qualitative and biochemical traits of strawberry during 7 and 14 after cold storage. results showed that all combined treatments and also GABA except for salicylic acid prevented the pH of juice to increase. The lowest amount of soluble solids was observed in Combination of GABA and salicylic acid (0.5 and 1mM) and the most effective treatment in maintaining vitamin C related to GABA 0.5mM. Combined treatments of salicylic acid and GABA (0.5 mM) and salicylic acid 1mM and GABA 0.5mM have the most effect on maintaining titrable acidity and total phenol content, respectively.  The highest activity of phenylalanine ammonia lyase enzyme was observed in combination treatments of salicylic acid and GABA (0.5mM). The effect of salicylic acid on poly phenol oxidase and catalase activates were more than GABA. Treatment of fruits with salicylic acid and GABA significantly increased the antioxidant activity compare to controls as fruits treated with salicylic acid and GABA (0.5 and 1 mM) have the most antioxidant activity. Treatment with salicylic acid and GABA have more potential in preserving marketability of strawberry because of better maintaining qualitative and biochemical characteristics and also reducing water loss of fruits surface.

Phytochelate is a charged compound that is bonded to the elements. For this purpose, in 2012, in the greenhouse of the University of Bu Ali Sina, The  effects of Si2+ and Al3+on total Phytochelate,  Phytochelate bond with  Si2+ and Al3+and distribution of Si2+ and  Al3+ ions in two rice cultivars (Shirudi and Aus) with different resistance to salinity. In this study, 30-day-old seedlings of rice were treated with Si2+ and Al3+in split plot design and Sampling was carried out every three days. The results showed that there is a significant difference between two breeder varieties of ion distribution in root and leaves. By comparing the concentration of 3 Si2+ and Al3+ in the root and leaf species, the concentration of Al3+ in the plant was compartmented. The Si2+ adsorption initially dipped the concentration down to the top of the plant then from top to bottom. However, in the Al3+ uptake process, the concentration dip from the bottom to the top of the plant intensified.

Various environmental stresses are one of the most important causes of many problems in agricultural production and drought stress is one of these tensions. Considering the role of nanoparticles in improving the yield and resistance of plants to environmental stresses, this experiment was conducted on Rosa damascena as a factorial experiment based on a completely randomized design with three replications was performed in the greenhouses of the Faculty of Agriculture of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad in spring and summer of 1397. The treatments consisted of two irrigation regimes (every three days (control), and every six days) and five levels of titanium (0 (control, no titanium), 15 ppm titanium dioxide, 30 ppm titanium dioxide, 15 ppm nano-titanium dioxide, 30 ppm nano-titanium dioxide). The results showed that although the interaction of two treatments of irrigation and titanium dioxide regimes on any of the morphological traits was not significant, the simple effect of irrigation regimes on root dry weight, flowers dry weight, number of flowers and Stem diameter had a significant effect. Thus, the level of 15 ppm nano-titanium dioxide with 0.23% had the highest essential oil yield. The electrolyte leakage was observed at 49% for 3 days of irrigation and 58.9% for 6 days irrigation intervals. The highest amount of electrolyte leakage was in control (68%) and then in 30 ppm titanium dioxide treatment (62.9%.). Increasing the distance between irrigation resulted in increased total phenol and reduced stomatal conductance. among the titanium levels, the highest total phenol (1.13 mg / g) was observed in 15 ppm nano-titanium dioxide treatment and the highest stomatal conductance was observed in 15 and 30 ppm nano titanium dioxide treatments. In general, the use of titanium at all levels used, especially in the 15-ppm nano titanium dioxide, was effective in improving the vegetative and physiochemical properties of Rosa damascena

Lepidium draba, a perennial plant belonging to the Brassicaceae family, contains high level of the glucosinolate glucoraphanin that  after enzymatic hydrolysis produce sulforaphane. In this study, sulforaphane content, morphological and biochemical properties were analyzed of the treated L. draba seedlings which grown for 7 days in the presence of different concentrations (0 (as control), 25, 50, 100, 250, 500 and 1000 mg/L) of nano zinc oxide (nZnO). Based on the results, seed germination rate was significantly reduced in the presence of concentrations more than 100 mg/L nanoparticle, so that it reduced about 30% in the presence of the highst doses of nZnO. Root and shoot lengths of the treated seedlings were also significantly decreased in compared to the control with the increase nanoparticles concentration in the medium, So that in the presence of the hightst concentration, length of the root and shoot were reduced about 70 and 60 % respectively. Moreover, it is also shown that chlorophyll, carotenoid and flavonoid contents were significantly decreased in treatment with all nanoparticle concentrations compared to the control. In contrast, the results shown that an increase in sulforaphane content in treated seedlings with the concentrations more than 100 mg/L nanoparticle compared to the control. Catalase activity was significantly increased in treated seedlings more than 100 mg/L nZnO concentration compared to the control, so that in the presence of the highst concentration, its activity increased more than 3 factors.  The positive effects of this particle were also seen on soluble protein concentration (in the presence of all nZnO concentrations) and anthocyanin content (up to 100 mg/L nZnO concentrations) in compared to the control sample. Furthermore, the amount of the abzorbed Zn ion in the root and shoot of the treated seedlings increase with the increase nanoparticle concentration in the medium. Overall, based on the increase sulforaphane and anthocyanin contents and activity of catalase, it seems that surface adsorption or accumulation of these particles, induced oxidative stress which resulted in decreasing of seedling growth. So, it is suggested for determining the exact mechanism effects of nZnO on this plant, others physiological, biochemical and genetics parameters must be analysed.

Temperature is one of the most important factors in maintaining the quality of stored horticultural products, which affect physiological and biochemical processes. There is no report on the efficacy of lavender essence in regulating the antioxidant capacity of cold-stored food products. The aim of present study was to investigate different concentrations of Lavender essence on improving biochemical quality of cold stored radish tuber. Greenhouse cultivated radishes were stored under cold condition after essence (., 1.56, 3.13, 6.25, 12.5 and 25 ppm) dipping treatment. Nine days’ evaluation of tuber characteristics (days 3, 6 and 9) indicated that low temperature decreased L*, a*, protein and DPPH characteristics and increase in b*, MDA, protease, catalase, peroxidase and poly phenol oxidase activities. Lavender essence caused a balance in the oxidant / antioxidant system through reduction in peroxidase and poly phenol oxidase activity and decrease in MDA content. The essence concentrations of 12.5 and 25 ppm were most effective.

Modification of planting season from spring to autumn in order to use green water, has been introduced as an effective and consistent agronomic strategy with climate change. For this purpose and in order to increase the cultivation of autumn sugar beet as a strategic crops in increasing the self-sufficiency of sugar in the country, it is necessary to implement research programs including determining the appropriate growth period duration, that recognition of them is needed to achieve optimal yield. Therefore, an experiment was conducted as split plot based on randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications at Darreh shahr, Ilam, Iran, in 2015-2016 growing seasons. Investigated factors were three planting dates (5 October, 19 October, 16 November) and two harvest dates (8 May and 17 June) in main plots and sub plots respectively. Results of the study showed that white sugar yield in the range of early- to late October and harvested in late June (Growth period 255 and 240 days) showed increase about %73 compared with cultivation in November and harvest in early June(Growth period duration 192 days). Results of this research were recounted the dramatic role of duration growth elongation in improving white sugar yield of autumn sugar beet followed by increasing root yield increase (%69), pure sugar percent (%23), sugar content (%12) and reduction of molasses (%37). More attention to crop management in sugar beet production under autumn swoing can play a key role in increasing sugar beet production in these areas.

This research was carried out to evaluate the effect of spraying different concentrations of Gibberellin (GA3), Benzyladenin (BA) and Ethanol on growth and flowering of Zontledechia ethiopica. Experiments were carried out in a randomized complete block design with three replications in greenhouse and with 12 spraying treatments include: GA3 (500, 250, 100 and 1000 mg L-1), BA (100, 200 and 500 mg L-1) and ethanol (20, 40 and 60% v/v) and control (distilled water) were evaluated. The highest height of cut-flowering and vase life were observed in 1000 mg L-1 GA3 treatment. The highest length and diameter of spathe and plant height were observed in 500 mg L-1 GA3. The highest height of overlapping part of spathe, length and width leaf were observed in mg L-1 GA3. Ethanol treatment 20% had a significant effect on spathe length, height of overlapping part of spathe, spadix, leaf length, leaf number, total chlorophyll, cartenoid and chlorophyll a. Foliar application of different levels of ethanol had a significant effect on vegetative and physiological traits. Different levels of BA had no significant effect on quantitative and qualitative traits in calla lily. Therefore, due to the positive effect of ethanol and GA3 on the growth of vegetative growth and physiological traits in calla lily, their recommended.

In vitro organogenesis of cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) was evaluated using the cotyledonary explants of “Beth Alpha” and “Dastgerdi” cultivars. Organogenesis was examined on the MS medium containing 2 mgl-1 Benzylaminopurine (BAP) along with eight combinations of abscisic acid (ABA) (0 and 1 mgl-1), silver nitrate (0 and 5 mgl-1), and cefotaxime (0 and 200 mgl-1). The results indicated the significant effect of ABA on increasing the percent of shoot induction and number of regenerated shoots. In the absence of ABA, silver nitrate had a significant effect on shoot induction and number of shoots. Not only the negative effects of cefotaxime was not observed, but also the number of shoots increased in one case. Root induction in the regenerated shoots was also studied using 5 different media including PGR-free MS medium and the media containing indolebutyric acid (IBA) (0.1 and 1 mgl-1) or naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) (0.1 and 1 mgl-1). The highest number of roots per shoot in “Beth Alpha” (9.4) and “Dastgerdi” (8.6) were observed in the MS medium supplemented with 0.1 mgl-1 IBA. The genetic stability among 10 randomly selected clones of “Beth Alpha” cultivar was evaluated using AFLP markers. Besides that, cytogenetic assessment of 10 clones from each cultivar was implemented. In total 293 monomorphic bands were amplified using 9 primer combinations of AFLP marker, indicating the absence of somaclonal variation. The chromosome counting of root meristematic cells revealed the stability of ploidy level among regenerated clones.

In order to investigate the effect of drought stress and nitrogen application on growth and some physiological characteristics of sorghum genotypes, an experiment was conducted in a split-split plot with randomized complete block design in three replications at Research farm of collage of agriculture, Isfahan University of Technology. Experimental treatments consisted of two irrigation regimes (50% and 85% depletion of available soil water), two levels of nitrogen fertilizer (available rate, 121.5 kg ha-1, nitrogen from Urea fertilizer, N= 45%) and 15 sorghum genotypes (Pegah, Sepideh, GS4, GS5 , GS24, GS25, GS26, GS28, KGS29, KGS33, MGS1, MGS5, SF001, SF002, SF003). The results showed that drought stress significantly decreased biological yield by decreasing plant leaf area, plant height, quantum efficiency of photosystem II and chlorophyll content. In contrast, the activity of antioxidant enzymes including catalase, ascorbate peroxidase and peroxidase was significantly increased under drought stress conditions. Application of nitrogen under normal irrigation and drought stress increased all the above traits except chlorophyll a/b ratio and ascorbate peroxidase activity, however, this increase was less in drought condition. Therefore, application of nitrogen fertilizer under drought stress can modulate the effect of stress and increase yield. Among the studied genotypes, SF001, SF002 and MGS5 genotypes had the highest response to nitrogen and the least sensitivity to drought stress. Therefore, they can be used in areas of water scarcity.

Heat stress is one of the most important weather phenomena that has caused destructive damaged many on agricultural crops, such as strawberries. For this purpose, five temperature treatments (control (23±2 days/16±2 nights), 30, 35, 40 and 45 °C) and two levels of mycorrhizal fungi (presence Funeliformis mosseae or absence) and tow cultivars of strawberry (Paros and Queen Elisa) as a factorial experiment in a completely randomized with four replications was performed in year 2016 in greenhouses at Shiraz university and Agricultural Research Center. The results showed that with increasing temperature, number of flowers in inflorescence, inflorescences per plant, percentage of fruit set, weight, length, diameter and achene of fruit, as well as plant yield decreased in both cultivars. The presence of mycorrhizal fungus on plants after the heat stress treatment increased colonization percentage, fresh and dry weights of root and shoot, leaf area, phosphorus, number of flowers and inflorescences, percentage of fruit set, fruit size, yield, total soluble solids and vitamin C was more than those of plants without mycorrhizal fungus. Plants in the presence of mycorrhizal fungus showed better tolerance to high temperatures than those without the presence of mycorrhizal fungus. The reduction of some evaluated characteristics was lower in cultivar of Paros compared to Queen Eliza at high temperatures which is demonstrated that, the tolerance of Paros cultivar was more at high temperatures. This study showed that the use of mycorrhizal fungi increased the quality and quantity of strawberry and improved heat stress tolerance.

Echinacea purpurea belongs to the family of Asteraceae which has different medicinal properties. The main goal of current research was optimization of callus induction and biomass production by using Response Surface Method (RSM). For this purpose, root and leaf explants were cultured in the ½ MS medium supplemented with different concentrations (0, 1 and 2 mg/L) of Kin either alone or with 2,4-D and NAA. Also, callus production and biomass were considered as dependent variable and different concentrations of plant growth regulators were used as optimizing parameters. Meanwhile Central Composite Design was used for optimization of callus production parameters. Correlation analysis of regression model determined a polynomial second degree which used for optimizing of callus induction and biomass production. The obtained data showed that both root and leaf explants produced callus in all investigated treatments. But the highest amount of callus induction and biomass production was achieved in leaf derived callus in medium containing 1.05 and 0.94 mg/L NAA and Kin, respectively. On the other hand, the maximum fresh weight was obtained in leaf derived callus in medium supplemented with 1.07 and 1.15 mg/L 2,4-D and Kin. The current results were almost in consistency with predicted data. The fit model was suitable and RSM was successful for optimization of callus induction and biomass production.

Salinity is one of the most important abiotic stresses that have restricted affects on plant growth and yield. Magnetic field can ameliorate the negative effect of salinity with induction of plant antioxidant activity. In present research, the effect of static magnetic fields (0 anf 4 mT) on some physiological parameters and antioxidative capacity were investigated under salinity stress at concentrations of 0, 50 and 100 mM NaCl in Silibum marianum L. The results showed that salinity at 100 mM and no a magnetic field pretreatment led to reduction in fresh (65%) and dry weight (27.7%), relative water content (15.35%), leaf area (29.82%), root length (8.30%) as comparied to control. The lowest IC50 (22.32%) was observed at 50 mM salinity and a magnetic -field strength of 4 milli- tesla . Proline, MDA, hydrogen peroxide, total phenol and flavonoid contents were also significantly increased under 100 mM NaCl treatments. The magnetic field reduced the negative effects of salinity on growth indicators of S. marianum seedlings by increasing the antioxidant capacity, proline, the total phenolic and  flavonoid contents. 4 mT magnetic field also led to a 28.3 and 35.4% reduction of hydrogen peroxide and MDA levels under 100 mM NaCl concentrations. It seems that magnetic field pre-treatment can be reduced the adverse effects of salt on this plant species by increasing antioxidant capacity especially at 50 mM.

Knowledge concerning some physiological and biochemical basis of flowering process is essential for achieving higher yield and quality of saffron. This study aimed to elucidate the relation between flower mass ratio and a rough content of carbohydrate, starch and protein of plants do produce flower and non-blooming saffron at flowering stage, affecting on flower development and to determine mass-flowering pattern based on comparison of carbohydrate, and protein content of saffron corms as well as the antioxidant enzyme activities at stages of complete dormancy, flowering and vegetative growth. 120 healthy and uniform weight saffron corms were selected and were grown in a completely randomized design (CRD) with three replicates and placed in a growth chamber. Corms were sampled separately during the dormancy stages (mid-August), flowering (late October) and vegetative growth (January). The results showed that sugar content at flowering stage was increased 65.6% compared to complete dormancy stage and starch content was decreased 32% in vegetative growth stage compared to flowering stage. Catalase enzyme activity was at its maximum level (3 μmol H2O2 min -1 mg-1 protein) and peroxidase at vegetative stage (2.6 μmol POX min -1 mg-1 protein). Due to the lower starch content in plants do produce flower than non-blooming saffron plants, it can be concluded that the plant may convert the starch in the corm of saffron into sugar, depending on its need at the flowering stage, and exchange these two substances as needed. Among the antioxidant enzymes investigated, it was found that the peroxidase enzyme usually acts as a multifunctional enzyme and can enhance or inhibit flower induction.

This study was designed to investigate the effect of Mycorrhiza symbiosis on some orphophysiological characteristics of four different pistachio rootstocks under salinity stress. This research was conducted in a completely randomized design with factorial arrangement with three factors. The factors were included rootstocks at four levels (Badami-e Riz Zarand, Qazvini, Sarakhs, and UCB1), mycorrhiza at two levels (inoculated and non-inoculated plants) and irrigation water salinity at four levels (0.91, 7.57, 16.12 and 24.63 dS/m). Sampling done of 6-month-old plants that they were under salinity stress conditions for 60 days. Then morphophysiological indices such as leaf number, height, relative water content (RWC), water use efficiency (WUE), chlorophyll and carotenoid, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), malondialdehyde (MAD), sucrose and protein content were measured. The results showed that the leaves number of all rootstocks and height of all rootstocks except Sarakhs decreased and leaf abscission percentage increased. The RWC, WUE, a, b and total chlorophyll and leaf and root protein content in mycorrhizal plants were higher than non-mycorrhizal plants. As well as, leaf H2O2 and root MAD concentration on inoculated plants were lower than non-inoculated plants. The lowest content of a, b and total chlorophyll, RWC and WUE and the highest content of leaf and root H2O2 and leaf MAD were founded in Sarakhs rootstock, and there was no significant difference between Badami-e Riz zarand and UCB1 rootstocks in terms of total chlorophyll, leaf and root H2O2 and leaf MAD. Salinity stress decreased total chlorophyll, RWC and leaf and root protein and increased H2O2, MAD and sucrose in leaves and roots. Generally, in the present study, mycorrhiza improved rootstocks tolerance under salinity stress. The Sarakhs rootstock was more salinity-sensitive than other rootstocks and the Badami-e Riz zarand and UCB1 rootstock had almost the same response to salinity stress.

The aim of this study was to investigate the importance of some physiological and biochemical properties related to cold adaptation mechanisms.We aimed to adopt properand efficient indices for identification of winter cold tolerance and susceptibilityin two strawberry cultivars. Differentphysiological and biochemical traits were studied under different cold treatments on the leaf and crown tissues of two strawberry cultivars of Selva and Queen Elisa. Plants prepared from new runners after being planted in the pot and grown until late November. Potted plantswere kept in out doorcondition to gradually adapt to low temperature. After plant adaptation, coldtreatments were artificially applied with adjustable chilling apparatus. The samples were kept under the final cold treatment for three hours and then removed from the apparatus and transferred to the laboratory for measurement of different traits. Factorial experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design. The results showed that the levels of oxidative enzymes including superoxide dismutase, guaiacol peroxidase and catalase were significantly affected by cultivar, texture and temperature changes. Also, with decrease in temperature, the ion leakage rate, proline, protein, hydrogen peroxide, membrane lipid and carbohydrate peroxidation increased and these values were generally higher in Queen Elisa cultivar than in Selva. Increasing levels of these factors were more evident in the process of lowering temperature in the crown tissue. The leaf relative water content also decreased with decreasing temperature, which overall confirms the tolerance to cold Queen Elisa cultivar.

The soil salinity and the diffusion of potentially toxic chemicals to the soil environment through industrial and agricultural activities are known as important factors affecting the productivity of crop plants. Thus, an efficient strategy to increase crop yield, and to improve human and environmental health, is necessary to mitigate the impacts of these detrimental factors. Accordingly, a factorial pot experiment using a randomized complete block design was conducted to investigate the effects of symbiosis with mycorrhizal fungi on the growth and heavy element absorption rate in two bread wheat cultivars (Roshan and Bahar) grown under salinity stress within a soil contaminated with heavy metals. The treatments consisted of irrigation water salinity at three levels (0, 75 and 150 mM NaCl) and plant inoculation at three levels (no-inoculation, inoculation with Funneliformis mosseae and Rhizophagus intraradices mycorrhizal fungi). Salinity stress reduced shoot and root dry weights but increased the concentration of cadmium, lead and zinc in the shoot and root tissues of both tested cultivars. The increase in Cd concentration and the decrease in shoot dry weight was significantly lower in Roshan (salt tolerant) than in Bahar (salt sensitive) cultivar. Under both none-saline and saline conditions, the shoot and root weights of both studied cultivars were increased in the plants inoculated with F. mosseae and Rh. intraradices compared to none-inoculated plants but the increases were greater in Roshan than in Bahar. Moreover, mycorrhizal inoculation decreased the concentration of cadmium and lead in shoot. However, the extent of these decreases were dependent on fungal species, salinity level and the used cultivar. The results of this experiment showed that while salinity decreased plant growth and increased heavy metal accumulation, mycorrhizal inoculation improved plant growth and decreased the concentration of these elements in wheat plants.

Fig is one of the first plants cultivated by humans that has global expansion. This study was conducted to investigate the physicochemical changes in different position of leaf (2 year cutting, Leaf next to immature syconium, Leaf next to ripe fruit, Leaf next to overripe fruit, Leaf next to fallen fruit) and fruit in four edible cultivars (Matti, Shah-Anjir, Sabz, Siah) as factorial experiment in framework of completely randomized block design in three replicates. Results indicated that leaf properties are dependent on its location. In all fig cultivars, chlorophylls of leaf next to immature syconium decreased, while as the fruits continued to grow, chlorophylls of leaf next to them increased. Two year cutting in Shah-Anjir cultivar had the highest chlorophyll a and total. Leaf next to fallen fruit position in Shah-Anjir had the greatest content of chlorophyll b. The highest carotenoid content were recorded in leaf next to fallen fruit in Siah cultivar. Sabz cultivar obtained the highest anthocyanin content in positions of the leaf next to overripe fruit and leaf next to fallen fruit as well. Two-year cutting and leaf next to immature syconium had the greatest amount of stomatal conductivity in Matti cultivar. In Shah-Anjir and Siah cultivars, the highest sugar and starch was at the position of leaf next to fallen fruit. The highest content of skin sugar, total soluble solid (TSS) and TSS/TA in Siah cultivar fruit and the highest content of sugar and starch of fruit pulp and pH were observed in Sabz cultivar fruit. Shah-Anjir cultivar obtained the greatest total acidity of fig fruit.

During the last decades, it has been sanctioned the number of regulations in relation to the control of population in Iran which could illustrate the approach of legislative policy of the country towards the issue of population. In this writing, the legislative policy of population has been investigated from two aspects. First, Iran’s legislative policy has never had a clear orientation related to the increase, decrease or the balance of population and second, the regulation observant on the control of population is considered as one of the only social elements effective on controlling the rate of population growth and the other factors such as economic and social factors as well as the cultural attitudes, the status of environment along with the natural sources effective on the increase or decrease of this rate. According to this article, the legislative policy is in the need of consistency in this regard and it could not be necessarily accepted that the legal system is considered as the main element in the rate of population growth. Hence, the approval of the impact of legal system on the increase or decrease of population would be in need of evaluating the regulatory works sanctioned in the domains of population while this evaluation has been undone hitherto. Moreover, the most significant element effective on the fulfillment of the objectives of a regulation is the possession of the executive guaranty and the policies concerning the control of population are not of sufficient executive guaranty though. The recommended strategy of this article is the necessity of gradual movement of the legal system towards the fulfillment of population balance instead of statistical controlling the population indexes.

Iris (Iris spp.) is one of the major ornamental and pharmaceutical plant species from Iridaceae family. The aim of this study was investigation the effect of mycorrhizal fungi on some morphophysilogical charachteristics of three genotypes of Iris germanica under salt stress. Experiment was conducted on a factorial and completely randomized design (CRD) with three replications. Treatments of this experiment were consisted of four levels of salinity (1, 4, 8 and 12 ds/m), three levels of mycorrhizal fungi (0, 15 and 25 g/kg) and three breeded genotypes of iris (OPRC-122, OPRC-125 and OPRC-S54). Whit increasing salinity level, dry weight of leaf, cholorophyll a, b, total chl, and potassium content of leaves significantley decreased and protein, catalas enzyme activity increased. In OPRC-122 genotype, 30 g/pot mycorrhizal fungi aplication led a significant increase (0.21 mg/g) of chl a in compare of control and 25 g/kg mycorrhizal fungi treatment. Also in the mentioned genotype, at salinity of 8 dS/m, application of 25 g/kg in mycorrhizal fungi compared to control and 15 g/kg mycorrhizal fungi significantly increased chlorophyll b. Application of 15 and 25 g/kg of mycorrhizal fungi at 8 dS/m decreased the sodium content in OPRC-122 genotype by 29.71% and 35.50%, respectively. Using of 50 g/pot mycorrhizal fungi at 12 dS/m in OPRC-125 genotype increased leaf potassium content by 12.61% compared to control. Generally, it seems that among three studied genotypes, OPRC-122, showed the most resistance to salinity and mycorrhizal fungi treatments better than control could increase salt tolerance of all three genotypes.

In order to study the effect of nitroxin bio-fertilizers (0, 3 and 6 liters per hectare) and ammonium sulfate fertilizer (0, 75 and 150 kg.ha-1) on yield, phytochemical, phenotypic and trace elements of Marrubium vulgare L., a factorial experiment based on completely randomized block design with three replications was conducted at Zanjan University in 2017. Nitroxin bio-fertilizer and ammonium sulfate had a significant effect on yield and mineral yield index. The highest weight of air part organs (157 g), inflorescence (349), inflorescence flowers (11.53 cm), total chlorophyll (12 mg.g-1), Phenol (112 mg.g-1), antioxidant (99.26) and tannin (35.66 mg.g-1) in combined treatments of 3 liters per hectare of nitroxin with 150 kg/ha of ammonium sulfate and 6 liters of nitroxin treatment with 75 kg/ha of ammonium Sulfate and the highest amount of flavonoid (12.96 mg.g-1) with 6 liters per hectare of nitroxin, with 150 kg ha-1, ammonium sulfate and anthocyanin (11.12 mg.g-1), was obtained in 6 liters/ha nitroxin. In conclusion, the results showed that biofertilizer consumption of nitroxin and ammonium sulfate, as compared to control, could be effective in increasing economic performance and qualitative characteristics of plant growth.

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Cadmium is one of the most commonly used heavy metals in the contaminated areas which entered in the ecosystem and the food chains and will have ecological harmful effects on living organisms. Considering the risk of increasing heavy elements in agricultural soils and subsequent exposure to medicinal plants such as purslane (Portulaca oleracea L.), a factorial experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design with three replications. The aim of the presented study was to study the vegetative growth response and the physiological and enzymatic parameters of this medicinal plant in comparison with the increase of cadmium concentration (0 to 275 mg/kg) in the soil. The results showed that vegetative traits, photosynthetic pigments, soluble protein content and relative water content of leaf decreased with increasing cadmium concentrations while increased the levels of malondialdehyde, hydrogen peroxide and proline. Also, the changes in the activity of the three enzymes of peroxidase (POX), ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) increased at lower levels of toxicity while decreased at higher levels. Purslane was more sensitive to higher levels of cadmium, so that gradient of more studied variables like dry weight of vegetative organs, the photosynthetic pigments, proline, soluble protein and hydrogen peroxide at low levels of cadmium (ranging from zero up to 60 mg/kg) was lower and then continued with a more slope. Overall, the results showed that the purslane medicinal plant has the ability to grow up to 275 mg per kg of cadmium in the soil. However, at concentrations higher than about 60 mg, the accumulation of dry matter and the functioning of the plants defense systems decreased by more than 50%.

The application of nanotechnology is a novel way of plant nutrition and a valuable technique to reduce environmental hazards by increasing yields in different agricultural sectors. In order to evaluate the content of secondary metabolites and some physiological traits of saffron a completely randomized design with 5 replications was conducted in a greenhouse, under the influence on 2 mM nano elicitor of silica concentration. The results showed that the highest amounts of crocin, picrocrocin, crocetin and safranal were obtained by nano silica treatment with 29.65%, 24.62%, 0.06% and 0.08%, respectively. The most value of inhibitory power of IC50 was due to the application of nano-silica treatment. The highest activity of superoxide dismutase, catalase and ascorbate peroxidase was observed in nano silica and the lowest in control. The highest amount of hydrogen peroxide was observed in 2 mM nano silica treatment with 19.85 (μmol/g). The highest proline content was 57.20 μmol/g and the highest amount of hydrogen peroxide was 68.57% in 2 mM nano silica. The highest amounts of chlorophyll a, b and total were obtained with 9.78, 2.91, and 13.02 mg / g in 2 mM nano silica, respectively.

Salinity is one of the major abiotic stresses that affects physiological processes of plants and reduces crop growth and yield. In order to study the effect of salinity stress on some physiological and agronomical traits of Thymus daenensis subsp. daenensis ecotypes and their classification, a factorial experiment was carried out using randomized complete block design with three replications in Abarkouh city in 2018. Experimental treatments were twelve Thymus daenensis subsp. daenensis ecotypes and three salinity levels including 0 (non-stress), 60 and 120 mM NaCl. Analysis of variance revealed that the difference among ecotypes and among salinity levels were significant (p<0.01) in all studied traits. Salinity stress led to a significant decrease in concentration of total chlorophyll, carotenoid, concentration of potassium, relative water content and shoot dry weigh and an significant increase in concentration of proline, concentration of sodium, sodium to potassium ratio and ion leakage. Studied ecotypes under two salinity levels including 0 (control) and 120 mM NaCl using cluster analysis based on Ward method and by using Eucilidian distance classified into three groups. Khoramabad1, Khoramabad2, Arak2, Fereydunshahr and Semirom ecotypes were suggested as salt tolerant ecotypes based on cluster analysis using all studied traits.