نشریه پژوهه باستان سنجی
سال ششم شماره 1 (پیاپی 11، بهار و تابستان 1399)

Human groups have considered the Behshahr plain of Mazandaran in the past Due to its particular geographical shape, location between the Caspian Sea and mountains, and the existence of some rivers in the region. However, our knowledge of this area is limited to several published surveys and archaeological investigation of its ancient sites. No detailed research has conducted on the formation of the settlement and the impact of geographical factors on it. Therefore, it is necessary to study the structure of the settlement pattern of this region. In the present study, new methods in archeology and a combination of archaeological data and remote sensing science were used rather than the traditional methods. Archaeologists need to know the advantages and disadvantages of using satellite remote sensing as a powerful tool for visualizing past perspectives. Applying remote sensing in archeology is one of the purposes of this study. Aerial photography, geophysics, laser scanning, geographic information analysis in GIS, and satellite imagery analysis are all aspects of remote sensing. They are all valuable for ancient research and promote non-destructive archeology, where using satellite remote sensing in archeology is the focus of this article. From a practical perspective, there can be an advancement over the traditional archaeologistchr('39')s research works with research using remote sensing satellite techniques. The use of satellite remote sensing for discoveries in archaeological studies, environment, and research programs, will be very usual and perfect and give us a fantastic insight into the social landscape of the past. This article discusses the types of satellite imagery with their advantages and disadvantages available to archaeologists and their applications in various archaeological projects to select the most appropriate images and provide information on other image types. To better understand the cases mentioned above, the settlement pattern of Behshahr evaluated with a combination of field methods and remote sensing techniques, GIS, spatial analysis functions, and multivariate regression methods. In this study, a sentinel-2 satellite image with a spatial resolution of 10 m noted on 2017, Topographic maps, 1/25000 maps and spatial data of the study area used after necessary preprocessing and correction, information layers including forest land cover, water zones, fields, coastal lands, elevation, and waterways classified as effectual environmental factors (independent parameter) in the formation of ancient settlements. In the next step, using buffer function to the spatial value of the settlements as a dependent parameter, linear regression modeling was used for spatial modeling and analysis. Therefore, the relative importance of the information layers and the potential spatial map of the ancient settlements obtained. As a result, the distribution of the settlements specified in each information layers. In addition to extracting and grading environmental information, their impact on the settlement formation in the research area was investigated. Access to water resources had played a significant role in this regard while distance from farms was the next priority. Attention to the importance of elevation factor in the formation of ancient sites, it is worth noting that the elevation factor has been less considered due to all sites situated in the plain of Behshahr, and has the least role in the formation of these settlements.

One of the important questions of archaeology is the study of the mobility and immigration of human groups. A common method for addressing these issues is to refer to the artifacts and archaeological findings left behind by the earlier cultures and to compare the forms, motifs, and production methods used among various ancient cultures, and hence, to explore the relationships and cultural exchanges between the societies. But, in the last three decades, the analysis of strontium isotopes in human tooth and bone samples (and even animals) has made it possible to study ancient immigration using a new method. According to the results of scientific researches, 87Sr/86Sr in each region is different due to the geological complications and the genus and stony sediments with 87Sr/86Sr of other regions. By measuring 87Sr/86Sr in bone and skeletal samples and comparing it with the average 87Sr/86Sr geological ratio in the region, the samples of the studied skeletons can be either indigenous or migratory. Since the people of the Piranshahr area in Iran have still traffic to the cities of Erbil and Sulaimaniyah in Iraq, and according to the studies, most villagers from Silveh village migrated to this region during the past century from the Iraqi Kurdistan, the immigration study of skeletons found in Tepe Silveh archaeological site could be interesting. The purpose of this study was to use the analysis of stable isotopes of strontium of the teeth and bone samples of skeletons obtained from the archaeological site of Tepe Silveh, Piranshahr, in order to determine their native or migratory nature. Tepe Silveh or as villager named “Tepe Sheikh Esmail Silveh” (N: 36° 48chr('39') 099chr('39')chr('39') – E: 45° 05chr('39') 937chr('39')chr('39') – altitude: 1567 m) is located exactly 100 m north of the Silveh village. Tepe Silveh is located in the center of intermountain river valley on the northern margin of the village, which has already been demolished and abandoned. As explained above, the reason for the destruction of the village was the sinking in the basin of the Silveh Dam. Seven Excavation trenches in Tepe Silveh have revealed, important materials from Early Chalcolithic Dalma (5000 BC) culture, Late Chalcolithic, Early Bronze Age culture of Hasan Ali or Nineveh V (3500- 2700 BC), Iron Age and Parthian periods. After a gap, Tepe Silveh have re-settled during Millde Islamic Periods (Seljuk era) and continued up to the late Islamic Period. According to the important location of Tepe Silveh and different occupation of the site deformation from Early Chalcolithic Dalma period to Islamic era, it should be suggested as a particularly important case study of migration, because it has been active and dynamic during different periods. Proximity of the site to the Iran, Iraq and Turkey adds to the importance of this study. To achieve this, the 87Sr/86Sr of the samples was measured. By comparing the ratio of strontium isotopes, it was possible to determine whether the samples were indigenous or migratory. The results obtained showed the different proportions in the analysis of strontium isotope, so that all samples could be considered non-native. Of course, this comment is only expressed on the basis of these five skeletons, and more specimens and analysis are needed to comment on the archaeological site of Piranshahr.

During the Qajar period, due to the influence of European artists, the method of oil painting became very popular in Iran, where this trend was common not only on cloth canvases but also on decoration of the walls of buildings. The western art influenced not only the use of materials, but also the method of execution and even the type of designs, and led to the blending of Western artistic methods with Iranian ones. During the Qajar period, various designs were used to decorate the walls, and traditional and western colors were used, sometimes in combination or separately, to paint the designs. According to the researches, the most used colors in the Qajar period are: lead white, calcium sulfate, calcium carbonate, huntite, barium sulfate, zinc oxide, ochre, amber, arsenic, orpiment, vermilion, lead chromate, green Silo, azurite, ultramarine, Prussian blue, malachite, chrome, cerulean, carmine, brass (copper & zinc), silver, gold, ivory for black Etc. Sadat-i-Dormianichr('39')s house is one of the unknown traditional buildings belongs to Qajar era located in the Bid-Abad neighborhood of the Mosque of Isfahan Masjid Seyyed. This building has been registered as one of the national monuments of Iran on August 22, 2005, by No. 13013. The total area of this house is about 900 square meters, where it has now been converted to a hotel, called Sohrevardi. This traditional hotel contains beautiful decorations such as stucco decoration, mirror work, and murals. In this research, the importance of the some principles utilized in order to performing the walls like drawn patterns, the techniques and materials have been considered and finally, the obtained results was compared with the materials used in other Qajar paintings. Due to the fact that most of the colors applied in these decorations are gold, red, blue, and green, and considering the principle of the minimum interference, a very small amount of material containing the above-mentioned colors were sampled. The samples were named with codes like B1 (golden color), B2 (red color), B3 (blue color), and B4 (green color). Laboratory analysis methods have been utilized to identify the color of substrate, the pigments, the coating, and the protective coating. The characterization have been fulfilled by, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) for detecting organic matter, scanning electron microscope equipped with X-ray diffraction (SEM-EDS) to detect mineral elements and compounds and finally, the optical microscopy (OM) to realize and analyze materials and pigments. Based on the obtained results, the combination of huntite (Mg3Ca(CO3)4) and gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) has been utilized as the substrate of paints. Huntit has been used from the past to the present both as a white color and as a substrate for paintings. The applied colors were inorganic and the motifs were executed with an oil technique. The pigments used in the decoration of the building are golden powdered brass (copper and zinc), red lead with the chemical formula (Pb3O4), Prussian blue with the chemical formula (Fe4(Fe⦋CN⦌6)3), and green which was a combination of Prussian blue and green-earth (silo) with chemical formula (K⦋Al3+, Fe3+) (Fe2+, Mg2+)⦌(AlSi3, Si4)O10(OH)2). White lead with the chemical formula (2PbCO3.Pb(OH)2) has also been used to create color tones. Moreover, it was identified that a kind of protein applied to the pigment composition. It should be noted that all materials and pigments identified in this study are consistent with the materials applied in other murals of the Qajar-related buildings and architectures (in Iran).

Climatic conditions have dried up since the late 5th millennium BC as if Paleoclimate research in the northern hemisphere, particularly Iran and neighboring countries, shows unfavorable climatic conditions and several periods of severe drought during 4th millennium BC. Also, based on environmental sedimentological studies on archaeological sites such as Mafin Abad of Islamshahr and Meymanat Abad of Robat Karim in Tehran province and Ghara Tepe of Qomroud in Qom province, it has been determined that all three sites were flooded by neighboring rivers in the mid and late 4th millennium BC. The occurrence of these floods coincided with the severe droughts in the 4th millennium BC. The enormous floods caused by severe centralized rains are, in principle, one of the main features of climate change and droughts. As the drought intensified, especially since the late-4th millennium BC, human populations in the cultural region of North Central Iran have decreased, leading to a cultural decline during the Bronze Age. This research tries to study the destructive impacts of climate change on ancient societies of the Tehran plain and the Qomroud-Gharachay basin, located in the western part of the North Central region of Iran. For this purpose, paleoclimate research of the Holocene Age and environmental sedimentological studies of ancient sites contemporary with Sialk III period have been used. Also, during environmental surveys of the Mafin Abad site, evidence of an ancient stream (possibly one of the branches of the Karaj River) belonging to the mid-4th millennium BC, was discovered. It is probable that the uprising of the same river destroyed the ancient village. The XRD analysis on the sediments of this river indicates the deliberate selection of this location for establishment of the important settlement in 5th and 4th millennium BC. According to the sedimentology, the ancient stream has been one of the most valuable mine of pottery clay in the whole of North Central Iran. Previously, there was one of the largest ceramic factories near Mafin Abad, which uses peripheral soil. Also, the existence of very fine and excellent pottery of Mafin Abad, belonging to the Cheshmeh Ali Culture with 3mm thickness is another reason to support this hypothesis. Thus, Mafin Abad has great environmental potential for attracting human communities, but has failed to reach the threshold of urbanization. Mafin Abad and Ghara Tepe in the mid-4th millennium BC and Meymant Abad in the late-4th millennium BC ended their lives. Although it is not yet known exactly where the Meymanat Abad settlement was formed after the Mafin Abad collapse, but because the most recent Mafin Abad cultural material belongs to the early Sialk III phase and the oldest Meymanat Abad cultural material belongs to the same period, it is likely that after the end of Mafin Abad due to the flooding of the ancient stream which was a branch of the Karaj River, Meymanat Abad has been established. Since the absolute dating of Meymanat Abad indicates the oldest settlement at around 3700 BC, it may be possible to attribute this date time to the flood in Mafin Abad. As noted, most of the paleoclimate researches confirm the occurrence of a climate change and drought in about 3700-3500 BC. Also, the eventual collapse of Meymanat Abad in the late 4th millennium BC overlaps with the 5.2 ka BP drought event (3200 BC) that continued until the early 3rd millennium BC. Since then, the long cultural decline began in the North Central Iran region and covered the whole Bronze Age. Perhaps one of the most important reasons for the significant decreased of settlements and the existence of only one to two layers of settlement after the Sialk III period was severe climate change. These natural hazards have undoubtedly had profound impacts on the subsistence system of the North Central societies of Iran.

One of the long-lasting discussions concerning early Neolithic sites in the Iranian plateau deals with the issue of seasonal or permanent settlements that is directly related to level of human mobility during this period. It is noteworthy that this time period coincided with earliest signs of sedentary life style and domestication of some species of animal and plants. What kinds of activities were usually focused by the early Neolithic societies? In addition to the normal archaeological finds, understanding the site formation processes -as a new approach- and the kinds of on-site human activities are also increasingly of importance. Most importantly, micromorphological analysis is playing an increasing role in this case. Therefore, to better understand the nature of deposition and sorts of various activities that might have been done in the past, the Late PPN site of Tapeh Mahtaj was examined. The site is located on a natural hillock composed of fine and fertile sediments of the Behbahan plain, south-western Iran, close to the foothill of the Zagros Mountains. The site was briefly excavated in 2015 and as a result, stratigraphic observations attested to the presence of three major occupational phases. However, further information left with analysis of a micromorphological sample that was taken from the north trench-section of the site, where it provided a maximum amount of its deposits. The results of site formations analyses by thin section studies at Tapeh Mahtaj identified several occupational phases as a sequence of human activities. This study revealed living floors that are shown by plastering, infillings, numerous charcoal and bone fragments, face pigments, organic materials and exciting mineral elements such as phosphate. All these findings present the nature of human activities in the Mahtaj site during the time spanning from late 8th to early 7th Millennium BC. It should be noted that this chronological time frame of the site has also recently been suggested by radio-carbon dating, where this time period is archaeologically consisted with the emergence of the initial ceramics across the Near East. This highlights the key role of such micromorphological analyses to track those activities associated with early pottery making. At a site-level, however, one of the most interesting results of the micromorphological analysis is the discovery of a dung pellet in the lowest stage of the site occupation. This shows that the site occupants might have dealt with animal husbandry, presumably goat herding. It is also believed that the site was probably used as seasonal campsite for mobile pastoralists during the late 8th millennium BC. Additionally, the observation through thin sections such as bioturbations, temperature fluctuations effects (clay cracks), and twist flow in deposits by freeze/thaw, diffused iron oxide nodules indicate a short-term seasonal use of the site during the cool, wet periods. Overall, the site formation study at Mahtaj matches with the archaeological evidence such as the low density of archaeological finds and the low volume as well as nature of the deposits remained. These all point to the presence and mechanism of the early occupants of the Behbehan Plain who had intensive interactions with the nearby highland Zagros Mountains.

The high vulnerability of the cultural buildings due to seismic actions urged researchers to retrofit them using reversible and compatible techniques. The application of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) for enhancing the structural behavior of masonry buildings, under seismic actions, has been studied by many researchers. The near-surface mounting (NSM) technique is a relatively new retrofitting approach that involves bonding FRP bars/strips inserted into grooves cut of mortar joints. This method is an appropriate technique to be used in seismic retrofitting of heritage buildings, because of its low influence on the global mass, high strength-to-weight ratios, minimum durability concern, ease of handling, flexibility and fast installation that improve on-site productivity, low impact of building functions, and low architectural and structural interventions. No.1 Educational heritage building of Tabriz Islamic Art University has flexible diaphragms with unreinforced masonry walls as lateral and gravitational resisting system. The masonry walls have no tie beams or columns and appropriate connection to the floors. Furthermore, the building has irregularity in plane because of length to width ratio more than 3. Another deficiency of this building to resist seismic load is related to the existence of small percentage of masonry wall in transversal direction compared with longitudinal direction, which can be result in torsional irregularity in the structure. The aim of this paper is to investigate the effectiveness of applying NSM technique on seismic performance of this heritage building. For this purpose, a 3D Equivalent frame model was created in 3Muri software to simulate the structural behavior of strengthened masonry walls. The masonry was modeled by macro-modeling approach and FRP bars/strips were modeled as attaching to the masonry walls. A safety index value according to “Guidelines for evaluation and mitigation of seismic risk to cultural heritage”, have been calculated to evaluate the seismic behavior of the building before and after applying retrofitting method. The selected safety index depends on shear strength of the structure, site seismic hazard zone and the desired building performance level. Nonlinear static analysis has been employed by 3Muri software to evaluate the safety index for selected limit states including Ultimate Limit State (SLU) and Damage Limit State (SLD). The distribution of lateral load is done in two different modes; proportional to the shape of the first mode and proportional to story mass. Based on the results of twenty-four pushover analysis, it has been concluded that inserting the FRP strips to the masonry walls and adding new masonry walls reinforced by FRP bars, increase the safety index significantly in both directions, especially in the transversal direction. Also it has been observed that shear strength of the building increased considerably after applying the retrofitting design relative to the existing condition. More uniform distribution of the safety index between different analyses was another positive effect of using this technique. The results of this research demonstrated the advantages of using NSM technique for seismic performance of heritage buildings and are based on a numerical modeling and pushover analysis which uses the performance criteria of safety index, while more experimental and numerical studies are proposed for future studies.

During the Islamic periods, the containers characterized by narrow or pear-shaped glass-body with a round bottom and long drainage pipe or tube were known, but rarely have been studied. There are three different hypotheses for applications of such containers. A cupping glass(Shakh-i hajamat) for phlebotomize in medicine, “Alembic” for chemical or alchemical experiments, or containers for pharmaceuticals and the production of cosmetics and perfumes which has been used for making the materials and transfer them through tubes, or perfume containers as particular container for cosmetics. It seems that if the container is placed from the opening on a surface, then its pipe is wholly bent in the opposite direction of the body. Where it is taller than the body, it could be used or applied as a cupping glass for phlebotomize in medicine or as a container for materials in medications, cosmetics and perfumery. If the pipe is entirely straight and perpendicular to the body or slightly curved, it could be used for all three applications mentioned above. In Islamic periods, the Arabic word of KIMIA (elixir) was synonymous with alchemy and chemistry in the viewpoint of technology and therefore, includes a variety of processes, including distillation of herbs and medicinal oils, perfumes and rosewater, and fragrant oils and other substances. Some of tools and equipment used for alchemy have been made of glass like the distiller. There have been many pacts for using these kinds of container in the Islamic literature written by Abu Musa Jaber Ibn Hayyan (Around 721 to 815 AD) and Abū Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariyyā al-Rāzī (865 to 923 AD) who were known as the greatest scientists in the history of chemistry and chemical technology in the Islamic world. Their scientific and practical works have had a great impact on the scientists and researchers of the next generations, both Muslims and Europeans. Many methods, such as distillation and all kinds of basic related tools, such as Cucurbit (qar’a) and Alembic (al-inbīq) have been attributed to Jabir Ibn Hayyan. However, al-Razi in his book, Kitab al-asrar or Secret of alchemy, among the tools and devices for chemical processing (Tadbir) and distillation (Taqtir), has mentioned to them and studied the Cucurbit and Alembic with an outlet pipe, a distilled liquid container, recipient (qabila) and a blind Alembic (without an outlet pipe) (anbiq alchr('39')aemaa). As a matter of fact, the chemical composition of materials inside such containers discovered in Iran has not yet been studied, while it is a critical issue for the characterization and application of these containers. For the first time, one of such containers with a long and straight tube which was kept in the Glassware and Ceramic Museum of Iran has been analyzed and processed by the Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) technique. The analysis of chemical compounds detected in this container revealed that it had been exposed to essential, and natural oils for a long time. The GC-MS analysis of the washing solution led to the identification of 22 substances, where the main identified compounds were: thymol, carvacrol, p-cymene and γ-terpinene, fatty acids (palmitic acid and stearic acid), and a significant number of substances of the waxes groups. Thymol and carvacrol are the main substances of natural essential oils of Thyme, Savory and Marjoram. Also, the findings of this research have proved the contact of the above-mentioned container with natural essential oils, especially thyme. The ingredients found in this container could be recognizable in many distillates. So, it can suggest that the container has been used as an Alembic for distillation and extraction of vegetable and volatile oil substances in pharmacy, cosmetics and perfumes. More analysis in the future on the contaminated materials within such containers can give more clues and advantages for clarifying the more possible application of these containers.

In the third millennium B.C., the inhabitable zones in the southern part of Sistan Plain were confined to the deltaic lands around the Rud-i Biyaban River. One of the main climatological characteristics of that time was the abundance of water resources in the Hilmand basin. The formation and dynamism of human settlements in this region have always been related to the water fluctuations of the Hilmand River, so that a shift in the water courses has always led to changes in human agglomerations. The main purposes of this research are first of all, to find out more about the vegetation around Tepe Taleb Khan and second, to provide more information on the use of these vegetal resources by the local inhabitants in that era. Two phases of archaeobotanical analysis are included in this research: namely field operation (sampling and extracting techniques of plant remains), and laboratory studies on the data coming from the sixth season of archaeological excavations at Tepe Taleb Khan. These studies have been done on the plant remains obtained from 25 samples related to various archaeological contexts such as soil deposit, ashy layer, burnt soil, fireplaces and their contents, plaster and soil deposit, msoil and debris deposit, soil and ash deposit, mudbrick debris and floor (dated back to the third millennium BCE/2500-2300 BCE). By flotation of 316 liter of sediments, collected from these contexts, approximately 1900 mL plant remains including seeds, rachis segments, fruits and charcoals were extracted. The carpological studies on 2045 seeds, rachis segments and fruits, led to the identification of various vegetal groups with different relative frequencies in the archaeological contexts including cultivated plants (such as cereals, oil seeds, fruits, cucurbits, cultivated pulses) and non-cultivated plants (like wild fruits, wild pulses, wild grasses and wild plants). The results indicated the presence of different crops such as emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccum), free threshing wheat (T. durum/aestivum),  bread wheat (T. aestivum), club wheat (T. compactum), spelt (T. spelt), free threshing barley (Hordeum vulgare var.nudum), lentil (Lens culinaris), vetches (Vicia), vetchlings (Lathyrus), pea (Pisum sativum), flax (Linum usitatissimum), grape (Vitis vinifera) and cucurbits (cucurbitaceae), testifying a subsistence economy based on agriculture. At the same time, anthracological studies done on 948 charcoal fragments led to the identification of diffrent trees and shrubs like goosefoots (Chenopodiaceae), tamaris (Tamarix sp.), palm (Phoenix dactylifera) and poplar (Populus sp.). According to the previous archaeobotanical evidence at Shahr-i Sokhta, these taxa are present in the anthracological spectra of the Bronze Age vegetation of the southern Sistan Plain. Based on the archaeobotanical data, Tepe Taleb Khan inhabitants used goosefoots and tamaris wood to meet their fuel needs due to the soft texture and rapid flammability of these species. Nowadays, due to the unfavorable environmental conditions of Sistan, tamaris and goosefoots (as xeric and halophytic plants) are the dominant species in the region. The continued presence of these plants from the third millennium B.C., up to now indicates more or less the durability of ecological conditions in the region. The poorness of current vegetation in Sistan has undoubtedly been influenced by environmental and human factors over the time.

The scientific research regarding investigation, characterization and protection of the archeological specimens is manifested through a notable participation of multidisciplinary subjects and experts, scientists and archeometrists. One of the main principals which are considered by archaeometrists in the study of the precious specimens is the utilizing nondestructive methods. As an example, in synchrotrons, parameters such as the high photon flux, the small source size and the low divergence attained make it a very efficient source for a range of advanced spectroscopy and imaging techniques, adapted to the heterogeneity and great complexity of the materials under study. The use of synchrotron radiation techniques to study cultural heritage and archaeological materials has undergone a steep increase over the past 10–15 years. The techniques mainly have been focused on are: X-ray fluorescence (XRF), X-ray absorption (XAS), X-ray tomography microscopy (XTM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) analyses. Among these, XRF spectroscopy is based on the detection of characteristic X-rays emitted. Impinging X-rays on an atom creates inner electron vacancy in it, where the excited atom returns to its ground state, the fluorescing photon is emitted. The energy of this photon is the difference in energy between the vacancy and the electronic state of the electron filling the vacancy. Analysis of the XRF spectra includes identification of the elements from the fluorescence spectra observed. On the other hand, XAS (or X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy) relies on the absorption of X-rays by atoms of the materials in the vicinity of the absorption edge of one of its constituting elements. This technique gives chemical information on the coordination sphere of the absorber.  In X-ray tomography, a set of radiographs are taken and used to reconstruct a 3D morphology of the studied object. With two procedure, the obtained 3D morphology corresponds to what is measured in the radiography: X-ray absorption contrast where the image formed on the detector is described assuming an straight trajectory for each photon when the density of the transversed matter modulates its intensity on the detector; where the main effect of the matter is refraction and the absorption is negligible, X-ray phase contrast plays role while the photon direction changes as it travels inside the material. Diffraction takes place whenever the wavelength of the interacting wave is comparable with a length scale of a periodic structure. Therefore, the analysis of X-ray diffraction patterns gives information about the atomic and molecular structure of matter. For amorphous systems, however, the absence of an ordered structure limits outcomes of the XRD technique. Nevertheless, it gives significant information on average interatomic or intermolecular distances. Infrared spectroscopy is based on a transition in the vibrational state of the molecules when the incident photon is absorbed. The energy of this photon is a characteristic of the nature of each vibration, involving a single bond or chemical group in the molecule. In this research, how synchrotron radiation, identified with super brilliant and parallel micro x-rays, can be applied to characterize archeological specimens is presented, and then, some results by which the advantages of using the synchrotron radiation technique over the prior ones can be stressed, noticeably, will be reasoned.hich the advantages of using the synchrotron radiation technique over the prior ones can be stressed, noticeably, will be reasoned.

Cultural heritage has always been the focus of many civilizations and therefore, it needs to be preserved for future generations. From prehistoric times, when grandeur and beauty were the aims of architecture, stone was the most widely used durable material. Biodeterioration of the stone monuments, one of the most important causes for the loss of the cultural heritage, is defined as any undesirable change in the properties of a material caused by the action of biological agents such as fungi, bacteria, cyanobacteria, lichens and plants, as well as animals such as insects. The world heritage of Persepolis, for example, has been unprotected from biodeterioration for the centuries, and has unfortunately not been addressed during this time. The purpose of this study is to provide a new perspective on the study of the destructive biological factors affecting this historic site to provide a framework for future studies and serious consideration of the biological debate in conservation and restoration issues. Therefore, the presence of various factors possibly derived from the action of animals, vascular plants, mosses, fungi, lichens, green microalgae, and photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic bacteria were investigated. Based on objective observations, the presence of biodegradation factors affecting floors and the all sides of walls of various buildings in Persepolis was qualitatively investigated. Based on the results, the studied areas were classified into four classes with very high, high, medium and low risk. In addition to the initial estimate of biodiversity, the factors affecting the biodegradation of Persepolis were presented for the first time and the critical points for the presence of destructive factors were determined. Lichens exist throughout Persepolis and have proved useful in archaeological studies, since their growth can be chronologically employed to measure the age of rocks and indeed ancient monuments, their radial growth increasing logarithmically over time based on the assumed specific rate. In this study, the presence of lichens has been investigated from the perspective of biodeterioration, their presence at the microscopic scale can intensify the weathering and biodeterioration of the rock. Such action is not visible to the naked eye but leaves irreparable damage to the stone surface. It was estimated that this complex process at Persepolis is the result of more than 15 different Vascular plant species and 5 Non-vascular plant (mosses), 16 or 17 different species of birds, 3 to 5 species of snails and 2 to 4 species of reptiles and insects. It was shown that the establishment of a biomonitoring laboratory at Persepolis is the important task of studying the action of microorganisms since it is estimated that more than 20 strains of non-photosynthetic bacteria, more than 10 taxa of cyanobacteria, about 15 plants and mosses, more than 130 lichen species and 20 species of non-lichen fungi are involved in the biodegradation of Persepolis. The results are the estimative and provide the basis for more detailed studies to monitor the factors involved in biodegradation, which is one of the necessities of this World Heritage Site.