مجله پژوهش های راهبردی مسائل اجتماعی ایران
سال نهم شماره 2 (پیاپی 29، تابستان 1399)

Organizational learning is defined as the perceptual structure of the social environment, physical environment, and social relationships of the people involved. Organizational learning is a continuous social activity between individuals in work environments that is different from the individual cognitive process (Hariharan & Vivekanand, 2018). In the future, organizations will succeed in discovering how to leverage the commitment and learning capacity of individuals at all levels of the organization. Therefore, learning has a special role in today's organizations and is a reflection of high intelligence and profitability resulting from opportunities and commitment to continuous improvement in the organization (Senge, 1990). On the other hand, trust in organizations creates a participatory atmosphere in organizations and increases trust, cooperation, and organizational cooperation. Additionally, organizational trust is an important and effective factor in leadership effectiveness, employee satisfaction, organizational performance, and commitment. Organizational trust is divided into two parts: interpersonal trust (interpersonal trust) and non-individual trust (institutional trust). Individual trust is based on interactions and is created through special communications and is divided into two types of lateral trust (trust between employees) and vertical trust (trust between employees and managers) (Fazel et al., 2011). Organizational trust is defined as the positive expectations of individuals about the competence, reliability, and well-being of members of the organization as well as the fundamental organizational trust within the organization (Ellonen et al., 2008). Organizational inertia, inflexibility, or stickiness is a topic that has long been the focus of researchers in the field of management sciences. Organizational inertia indicates the weakness of robust and reproducible structures that ensure the reliability and accountability of organizations. Therefore, the process of organizational adaptation to the environment requires that organizations overcome the organizational inertial forces that exist in an organization (Mikalef et al., 2018). Organizational inertia affects the ability of the organization to be creative and innovative in learning and solving problems. In the state of organizational inertia, organizations are in a state of stagnation in the face of environmental changes and use their past methods and techniques in the face of new issues and problems. It is obvious that to solve new problems, creativity and innovation are necessary, while organizational inertia is a strong barrier to creative methods (Sepahvand et al., 2017). Insufficient attention to the phenomenon of organizational inertia has many negative effects such as ignoring valuable information, incorrect management of organizational knowledge, attention and emphasis on current strategies of the organization and not paying attention to environmental changes over time and feeling the need for change (Ebrahimi, 2015).

The statistical population of the study consisted of managers, deputies, and experts active in the General Department of Natural Resources and Watershed Management of Isfahan Province, which was about 300 individuals. The sampling method in this study was stratified random sampling proportional to the volume. Morgan table was used to determine the sample size. The sampling accuracy was assumed to be equal to 5% and the sample size was 169 people. Data were collected using a questionnaire including 21 organizational trust questions based on Guyer and Demirdag’s questionnaire (2014), 17 organizational learning questions based on Neif’s questionnaire (2001) and 9 organizational inertia questions based on Hong et al. (2012) questionnaire. Also, a 5-point Likert scale was used to answer the questionnaire questions. In this research, content validity and construct validity methods have been used to determine to what extent the questionnaire has correctly measured the variables of the research subject. The content validity of the questionnaire was confirmed by five professors of the Department of Management, University of Isfahan, Iran. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to evaluate the construct validity. The reliability of the questionnaire was obtained using Cronbach's alpha method. Cronbach's alpha for organizational learning was 0.816, for organizational trust was 0.858, and for organizational inertia was 0.835. In this research, SPSS 24 and Amos24 software have been used for statistical analysis of data.

In organizations, organizational trust between employees and managers has decreased, which is due to the complexity of organizations and changes in customer needs. Therefore, one of the concerns of organizations, especially large organizations, is to create organizational trust between employees and managers. For employees to learn new trends, they need to create the right space organization. An environment in which people can trust each other in the organization and have effective relationships in the organization. The results showed that organizational trust has a positive and significant effect on organizational learning and the extent of this effect is higher than average. High organizational trust partially compensates for the weakness in other resources necessary to improve productivity and affects the internal and external relations of the organization by creating internal and external effects (Zahed Babalan & Karimianpour, 2015). Organizational inertia cannot mediate between the effect of organizational trust and organizational learning. Lateral trust has no effect on organizational learning and also vertical trust and institutional trust have a positive and significant effect on organizational learning and this effect is more than average. Trust between employees and groups of an organization is an important variable in maintaining the long-term stability of the organization and the health of its members (Hassanzadeh et al., 2014). Lack of trust in the CEO makes employees spend a lot of time and energy thinking about their future in the company, the possibility of being fired, or the future of the company. Conversely, trust in senior management allows employees to focus on what needs to be done (Mayer & Gavin, 2015). Institutional trust prevents opportunistic behavior and promotes participation (Hassanzadeh et al., 2014).

One of the most important decisions of people in their life span is about spouse selection. Therefore, it seems essential to devote serious attention to premarital criteria for choosing a spouse to prevent marriage burnout. Adopting inappropriate criteria for spouse selection can be a cause of marriage burnout and a gradual decline in marital life. Thus, to prevent marriage burnout, premarital criteria for choosing a spouse should be necessarily observed (Li & Kenrick, 2006, 469(. Research findings on spouse selection are principally interpreted from an evolutionary perspective. In the late 80s and 90s, evolutionary psychologists) Buss & Barnes, 1986:566; Buss, 1985:50; Buss, 1989:10) extensively studied sexual differences in terms of spouse selection. Such efforts built a wide research foundation that is focused on criteria for choosing spouse and attraction and is regarded as a crucial part of evolutionary psychology (Webster, Jonason & Schember, 2009:360; Webster, 2007:89). According to the evolutionary model of sexual strategies theory, differences peculiar to each sex in light of time and energy that parents dedicate for their children (Trivers, 1972:140) lead to such distinctions in spouse selection. Concerning assortative mating, David Buss (1998:406) argues that we never choose our mate randomly. Our mating is strategy-based and these strategies are designed in a special way that these strategies help us solve fundamental problems to have a successful spouse selection. The people who were not able to mate successfully in the evolutionary past are not our ancestors. All of us are the result of a continuous ancestral line in which our forefathers competed successfully for their preferred mate, attracted mates who were valuable in terms of reproduction, and kept them insofar as it led to reproduction. Our ancestors beat their interested competitors and solved the problems which impeded their successful reproduction.

The statistical population of this study comprised of all male and female students of Kurdistan University. Cluster sampling was used as the sampling method. Among the colleges, 5 colleges were randomly selected and in each college, 5 classes were randomly chosen. Then, 600 questionnaires were distributed among the students, of which 486 questionnaires were filled out. In this study, 229 participants were male and 257 females. The research tool was the preference criteria of spouse selection inventory (PCSS). This questionnaire was developed by Refahi, Sanaie, Shafi Abadi, and Sharifi (2010: 28). It consisted of 22 criteria for spouse selection that examined two categories of criteria for spouse selection. In the research carried out by Refahi et al. (2010), the overall coefficient alpha of the questionnaire was 0.88. In the present study, Cronbach's alpha was 0.74 for spouse selection criteria and 0.9 for the opposite sex friend selection criteria.

Concerning the obtained results, the overall average of criteria in men is higher than women and it means that women are more particular about spouse selection and act more obsessively. These findings are in agreement with the sexual strategies theory in terms of women's particularity in comparison to men (Buss & Barnes, 1986; Buss & Schmitt, 1993(. Based on Findings, the first criterion for men and the second criterion for men for spouse selection is love and affection (intimacy). It implies that kindness, intimacy, and passion are among the most important criteria for spouse selection, which is line with the findings of Schwarz and Hassebrauck (2012) in Germany, Chen et al. (2015) in the USA and China, and Gholami et al. (2016) in Iran. Intimacy makes up the essence of love and is one of the elements of a love triangle from Sternberg's viewpoint, who defines it as an emotion which is a sign of closeness (Sternberg, 1987). The degree of love at the starting point of marriage has great importance for the couple's adaptability and satisfaction (Dinna, 2005(. Consequently, it can be assumed that love is a vital element in marriage (Rajabi, Abbasi, & Shamooni Ahwazi, 2015). However, the investigation of findings demonstrates that the girls without the experience of extramarital relationships do not prioritize love and affection (intimacy) for short-term opposite-sex partner selection. It signifies that girls who have not experienced any forms of emotional intimacy with the opposite sex, do not look out for emotional intimacy and closeness if it comes to choose someone for short-term relationships. This is not the case for boys and love and affection are the first criteria for them, even without the experience of premarital relationships. Although it was expected that love and affection should have taken on major importance, they were not among the first five criteria for the girls without the experience of relationships with the opposite sex. It seems that this finding cannot signify that girls do not care about intimacy and love in relationships, but the finding might imply that as they have not experienced relationships with the opposite sex, thinking about loving someone for a short time is meaningless and irrelevant. Nevertheless, since the social conditions differ for boys, they are freer in commenting on girls, even without having any experiences of relationships, and easily state that their priorities for short-term relationships are love and affection.

Generally, this paper focused primarily on the association between ethnicity and religiosity. More specifically, it aimed to examine the major patterns and determinants associated with the religious attitude of ethnic groups in Iran. Theoretically, it was based on religious socialization theory, modernism, and fundamental changes in social values theories that explain socio-cultural changes of contemporary societies including the changes in religious attitude. The literature review indicated that while a substantially wide range of ethnic groups is widespread throughout the country, their religious attitude has not been sufficiently studied in the existing literature particularly from comparative perspectives. This study aimed to contribute to filling this substantial research gap. The data of this study were collected using a survey with 5200 males and females aged 15 years old and over in rural and urban areas of Ahvaz, Babolsar, Bojnord, Esfarayen, Gonbad Kavos, Gorgan, Hamadan, Kamyaran, Khoramabad, Mahmoudabad, Rasht, and Saghez. This analysis included seven ethnic groups of Kurd, Gilak, Lak, Lur, Mazani, Turk, and Turkoman residing throughout the country.

The methodological foundations of this study were based on the analysis of an experimental research and survey study. The field of this study was Iran which has witnessed one of the most spectacular demographic swings throughout the world in human history (McDonald, 2005) and has experienced fundamental socio-cultural changes and challenges which are also significantly associated with gender dynamics and women’s status in Iran. More specifically, the empirical research findings of this analysis were based on a recently-conducted and nationally-representative survey to explain the dimensions and differentials of ethnic groups’ religiosity in Iran. The survey covered both urban and rural areas in the varying parts of the country with the total sample of 5200 males and females aged 15 years old and over in rural and urban areas of Ahvaz, Babolsar, Bojnord, Esfarayen, Gonbad Kavos, Gorgan, Hamadan, Kamyaran, Khoramabad, Mahmoudabad, Rasht, and Saghez. As noted above, the present study had seven ethnic groups including Kurd, Gilak, Lak, Lur, Mazani, Turk, and Turkoman, who lived in varying parts of Iran.

Generally, the results of this analysis revealed two key points including the patterns of religious attitude and also its determinants vary substantially across the ethnic groups. For instance, on the one hand, more than two-fifths of the respondents across the ethnic groups hold a ‘high and very high levels’ of religiosity and more than half of them believed in women’s right to decide about their dress codes in the public spheres. On the other hand, ethnic variations were significantly visible: while in the ethnic group of Mazani followed by the two other ethnic groups of Turk and Turkoman, the substantially higher proportion of religiosity and positive attitude towards full covering hijab or chador was observed, the proportions were substantially lower amongst the other ethnic groups particularly Lur, Lak, and Gilak residing throughout the country. Besides, the results of this research supported the fact the similarities and disparities still exist in terms of the determinants of religiosity that vary overwhelmingly across ethnic groups. This suggests that, on the one hand, the religiosity of all ethnic groups is significantly affected by determinants such as age, educational level, rural-urban places of residence, and gender attitude. On the other hand, the strength and magnitude of these determinants are not similar across the ethnic groups. While theses determinants play an important role in the religiosity of some ethnic groups, the opposite applies to some other ethnic groups of this analysis. In sum, these results confirmed the underlying conclusion that ethnicity plays a significantly important role, which echoes the fact that to comprehensively understand the association between ethnicity and religiosity, we must specify religious attitudes in terms of every single ethnic group.

The pandemic of Coronavirus and its rapid spread over the past few months in the world and countries has led to a complex situation in all human communications. Due to the involvement of a large number of people in the community, as well as the very high rate of transmission and spread of the disease and, more importantly, the unfamiliarity of this virus, the exposure of various institutions to manage it was confused and undecided. Mirzaei (2020) writes in this regard that in the spread of the coronavirus, society has led to a situation that has shocked all aspects and infrastructures of social life and has put serious rethinking in all matters on the agenda of various institutions and organizations. Thus, the transformation of virtual education that is currently underway, especially in terms of severing human relationships between teachers, leads to weak, superficial, and unstable links between teachers, which provide the ground for social isolation of teachers and students. Facing any challenge requires having the right strategy to overcome it. Samadipour and Qardashi (2020) state that one of the most important and influential factors on people's behavior in situations such as the coronavirus epidemic is the type of management and people’s trust in controlling and solving problems caused by hazards. Therefore, it seems that one of the factors that can affect the social isolation of teachers and the leadership style of school principals.Donaldson believes that the present age is witnessing the growing importance of a positive leadership style. Positive leadership seeks to provide positive principles that stem from positive organizational knowledge and, by emphasizing positivism, bring extraordinary consequences for the individual and the organization (Cameron and Spreitzer, 2011). Gilbert (2012) believes that positive leaders foster openness, open relationships, cooperation, and a culture of dialogue among employees, and by their behavior provide a work environment and atmosphere based on peace and security of mind, and by creating a positive relationship, create a feeling of energy and happiness. However, other factors play a role in this regard. Shen et al. (2009) have pointed to the role of spirituality in the workplace. They believe that wherever employees work, they are looking for something beyond material rewards. People are usually looking for a meaningful, hopeful, and balanced job. In other words, spirituality at work ‌ describes the experience of employees whose work is satisfying, meaningful, and purposeful. The experience of spirituality at work is also associated with increased creativity, honesty, trust, and commitment at work, and an increased sense of personal development of employees (Shen et al., 2009: 1217). The present study seeks to investigate the relationship between positive leadership and teachers’ social isolation with the mediating role of spirituality in the workplace. In this regard, the following hypotheses were formulated:Hypothesis 1: There is a relationship between positive leadership and social isolation.
Hypothesis 2: There is a relationship between positive leadership and spirituality at work.
Hypothesis 3: There is a relationship between spirituality at work and social isolation.
Hypothesis 4: Spirituality at work plays a mediating role in the relationship between positive leadership and social isolation.

The research method was a survey. The statistical population included the teachers of the first secondary school of Isfahan in the academic year 2019-20, and 150 individuals out of 1876 subjects were selected using Sample Power software and stratified random sampling. Data collection tools were the Social Isolation Questionnaire from Zavalenta, Samuel, and Mills (2017), Aghababaei’s Positive Leadership Questionnaire (2013) based on Cameron's theory (2007), and spirituality in the work from Milliman et al. (2003). To ensure the validity of the assessment tool in this study, content validity and construct validity were used. The questionnaires were submitted to the researchers and experts to confirm face validity and content validity. Their reliability was estimated to be 0.79, 0.76, and 0.74, respectively. 

The test of the first hypothesis showed that there is a relationship between positive leadership and social isolation (internal and external). The value of the correlation coefficient between these two variables is negative and is equal to -0.41, which shows that these two variables have a good correlation intensity, so in general, it can be inferred that there is a negative, inverse, and significant relationship between positive leadership and social isolation of teachers in Isfahan. The second hypothesis showed that there is a relationship between positivist leadership and spirituality at work. That is, the value of the correlation coefficient between these two variables is positive and is equal to 0.56, which shows these two variables are highly correlated.The third hypothesis showed that there is a relationship between spirituality at work and social isolation. The value of the correlation coefficient between these two variables is negative and is equal to -0.38 which shows that these two variables are relatively correlated. So, in general, it can be inferred that there is a negative, inverse, and significant relationship between spirituality in work and social isolation of teachers in Isfahan. The test of the fourth hypothesis of the research also showed that spirituality in work has a mediating role in the relationship between positive leadership and social isolation. Finally, according to the results of this study, it can be said that the adoption of positive leadership by principals affects both increasing the work ethic and reducing the social isolation of school teachers. So, officials can provide training workshops for positive leadership. Also, managers who have adopted positive leadership through material and spiritual encouragement can encourage other managers in this field.

Today, the emergence of risky behaviors among young people is one of the most important social problems. It has also become one of the most important and widespread concerns in human societies. In spite of the many efforts made in recent decades to increase the awareness of the consequences and reduce such behaviors, the risk has continued to increase. Youth is considered one of the most important, turbulent and sensitive age periods in any society and this period is one of the important stages in the socialization of actors, development, orderliness, and the institutionalization of social and moral norms. This period plays a prominent role in the development of psychological and social security in such a way that the occurrence and persistence of high-risk behaviors by young people have led to the formation of anti-social subcultures, insecurity, fear of crime, social phobia, and reduced trust among citizens. The incompatibility of such behaviors with social norms and its manifestation in the form of risky behaviors can have irreparable consequences for the whole society. The occurrence of such behaviors is one of the most important social issues in societies disrupting the lives of individuals and causes serious harm to the society. Such behaviors also increase the negative and destructive physical, psychological, and social consequences in a society and can cause many other damages.

This descriptive cross-sectional study used survey to collect data. The statistical population of the study comprised all people aged 15-34 years in the city of Tabriz with a population of 579694 people according to the general population and housing census of 1390 AH (2011). The number of statistical samples of the research was estimated to be 630 using Cochran’s statistical formula. The sampling method was multi-stage cluster sampling. In this way, the sample individuals were randomly selected from each region (cluster) of the municipality and by gender in relation to the population of each sex in the total statistical population of each region. A researcher-made questionnaire was used to measure the variables and obtain the necessary information. The validity of the scales was of the type of content validity including formal and structural validities. In addition, SPSS-22 and Smart-PLS software were used to analyze the data.

The results showed that the correlation between the social control, social empowerment, generation gap, and differential affiliation with risky behaviors was statistically significant. Also, the results of the Structural Equation Modeling indicated that the variables in the path model could explain 29.9 percent of the variations in the dependent variable of high-risk behaviors. On the other hand, according to the social process approach, the role of socialization was effective in the occurrence of deviant and risky behaviors. Therefore, the presence of individuals in different social spaces helps to form multiple and sometimes conflicting identities. Individuals’ personalities are constructed and addressed through such social relations and social networks, and cultural values ​​are internalized. In the meantime, the family is the link between the individual and society. In fact, this approach is based on the belief that family interactions and parent-child relationships, control mechanisms, and how to influence friends and peers are key elements to understanding the deviant behavior of young people.In this regard, the results of the present study are consistent with the theoretical contents of the social process.  As a general conclusion, it can be said that using the correct educational method in the family is the most basic and main element of socializing the next generation and going through the process of proper socialization of the potential of the youth. In addition, the internalization of normal norms could be a very positive and turning point for the mechanisms of formal institutions of social processes to work effectively in socializing people.

Political behaviors are considered as one of the constituent elements of organizations that can create divisive and harmful working environments that have increasingly negative consequences on the organization and employees. Therefore, it seems necessary to pay attention to the prevalence of political behavior in the organization and the factors affecting it to prevent and limit such behavior. In this study, the effect of various organizational structures mediated by power sources on political behavior has been investigated. The present study sought to provide a clear understanding of the desired organizational performance to effectively manage and achieve the goals of the educational organization by examining the relationships between variables and creating a small field for the development and promotion of the educational organization. Managers can also control these variables by recognizing political behaviors, existing organizational structure, and sources of managerial power, and use it to achieve organizational goals.

The present study was descriptive and survey in terms of the method and purpose. The statistical population of all employees of Fars General Directorate of Education included 432 individuals. Using Cochran's formula, the sample size was 203 persons. They were selected by the systematic random sampling method in such a way that the list of employees was prepared in alphabetical order and the first two people were drawn and examined using coins. After checking the level of normality and identifying the outliers, the final analysis was performed through 201 questionnaires. Data collection tools were Torkzadeh and Mohtaram’s (2014) Organizational Structure Model, Torkzadeh and Moeni Shahraki’s (2010) Power Resources Identification Approach, and Torkzadeh and Fereydouni’s (2015) Political Behaviors. Data were analyzed using SPSS 24 and AMOS16 software, t-test, paired t-test, intra-group variance analysis, Benfrony, and path analysis.

The results showed that the average deterrent structure (3.38) was higher than the empowering structure (3.32), but this difference was not statistically significant (p=0.37). The highest average was related to the source of moral power (3.45) and the lowest average was related to the source of punitive power (2.87). The result of the follow-up test showed that the average source of rewards power was significantly lower than other sources of power (except punitive power) and the average source of punitive power to resources of power of legitimacy, information, ethics, culture, and environmental dominance, but the average power source ethics was significantly higher than other sources of power (except for environmental culture and dominance) and the average power source of information was significantly higher than the average source of peripheral environmental power (p < 0.001). The average score of political games, political tactics, and power games was higher than the acceptable level of adequacy and lower than the desirable level of adequacy (p=0.001). The type of empowering organizational structure was not predictive of political behaviors and the variable of power sources in this regard was not intermediary, but in the deterrent structure of power sources, the relationship between the type of deterrent organizational structure and political behaviors was the relative intermediation. Based on these results, the awareness of organizations’ managers about a variety of political behaviors and the dimensions related to each of them were necessary to deal and react quickly to their prevalence in the organization. Considering the effect of deterrent organizational structure on political behaviors through power sources, managers must understand the characteristics of this structure and reduce the barriers of organizational structure by designing interactive models, controlling the actions of individuals by functional power sources, and thereby reducing the prevalence of negative political behaviors.