فصلنامه تاریخ فرهنگ و تمدن اسلامی
پیاپی 40 (پاییز 1399)

This descriptive and analytical study seeks to represent the type of confrontation of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) with the active social classes. The purpose of this article is to try to exploit and apply the output of the sacred management of the social interactions in Medina. The investigations in this article are an introduction to answering the question of "what model should be used to deal with active social classes?" The results of study show that the Messenger of God (PBUH), depending on several considerations with turning tribal contradictory logic into interaction, diminishing differentiation and balancing social contradictions and adopting opportunity-oriented approach to social classes sought to resolve and stagnate the social contradictions. Of course, these are not all the existing types and possible forms in his management of social classes. By studying and pondering on this subject, and with different considerations, more data can be obtained, and more readable hypotheses can be thought of.

Iconography of the Messenger of God (PBUH) is one of the most important fields of religious art that has been used in the miniature schools of medieval Iranian history. This study intends to identify the most prominent icons of the holy Prophet (PBUH) in miniature schools and answer the question of "What morphological changes have taken place in the iconography of the Prophet (PBUH) in the middle history of Iran?" This study implemented an analytical-comparative research method using the library resources and documents. This research has sampled the top icons of the medieval Iranian history that have a definite attribution to the mentioned historical period and the Prophet of Islam. They also enjoy appropriate visual quality and thematic diversity. Most icons in the early Middle Ages have visual commonalities such as displaying unveiled figures, using round halos around the head, implementing limited color options, using mostly static and simple structures, and displaying the purity and serenity. However, since the Ilkhanid era, the simplicity of the icons was reduced and they gained excellent visual tricks in the Timurid and Safavid eras. More attention was paid to the details, such as presenting masked faces, using fiery halos, implementing various color options, displaying luxurious clothes and elongated limbs, applying precise polishing and using dynamic and curved structures.

Taxation in Islamic culture and civilization has been considered by the Muslims since the first century. One of the sub-branches of financial historiography was tribute writing. With the beginning of the Islamic conquests, one of the issues related to the conquest of new lands was the payment of tribute as one of the most important sources of income for the Islamic State. As a result, the financial agents of the Caliphate apparatus prepared financial reports and collected and paid tribute. Thus, tribute writing in Islamic civilization began in the first century. Studies can be used to search for different styles in the classification of tribute history books. In fact, the position of the writers, the motivations and factors of writing, the style of writing, the content, and the writerschr('39') views on the economic and financial issues were different. By implementing a descriptive-analytical research method and investigating historiographical sources, indexes, and library documents, the main question of the study has been answered: "What were the main styles of the works written by the Muslims regarding the issue of tribute until the year 650 (AH)?" It was hypothesized that the main writing styles about tribute have been jurisprudential-political, jurisprudential-traditional and local-geographical.

With the spread and development of geography during the Translation Movement, in the fourth century (AH), we see the emergence of a number of geographers who followed the method of Abu Zayd Balkhi (235-322 AH). They added to their works a religious aspect which led to the formation of Balkhichr('39')s geographical school. The present study intends to examine the works of the prominent representatives of the mentioned school to examine the issue of how they differ from each other in spite of the existing similarities? Findings indicate that each of the authors of this school has had a different approach in using resources, climate classification system, quantity and manner of drawing maps and signs, writing style, as well as providing historical, economic, social and cultural information.

The migration of Shiite scholars from Bahrain to Iran and their role in promoting Iranian Shiism is one of the topics that has long been of interest to researchers. This study raises the question of "what role Bahraini scholars have played in the Shiism of the Iranian people?" This study uses a descriptive-analytical research method to examine the issue within the mentioned time frame. The findings show that Bahraini scholars played an important role in the spread of Shiism in Iran, especially in the southern regions by promoting religious schools, teaching and educating students, writing books and treatises on religious principles, holding Friday prayers and congregations and other cultural and propaganda activities.

The natural sciences in the Islamic period are precious heritages that deserve more attention in terms of their validity and impact during the heyday of Islamic civilization and the possibility of using parts of them in the contemporary era. In this article, while referring to the natural sciences and their various branches in Islamic civilization, their positions and status among the sciences of the Islamic period is examined. This article claims that the invasion of new sciences in Iran, their undisputed dominance in scientific institutions, the inattention of contemporary scholars to the ancient scientific heritage, and the lack of understanding of the relationship between the old and new natural sciences, led to the unscientific perceptions and incomplete judgments. Sometimes incorrect judgments have been made on the natural sciences of the Islamic period. For a more accurate understanding and better judgment of the natural sciences of the Islamic period in the present era, a new division of the natural sciences is propose in this article.