فصلنامه هنرهای زیبا - معماری و شهرسازی
سال بیست و چهارم شماره 4 (پیاپی 80، زمستان 1398)

Educational system and teaching methods play a crucial and significant role in the manifestation of the quality of architecture in various aspects of society within Iranian context. Every year architecture graduates enter occupational market and create architectural designs which affect the architecture view of the country. If teaching methodologies and education in architecture as well as the quality and efficiency of the course are improved, it is expected that the view of architecture in the country can be enhanced. Experts and specialists in the field believe that there must be various studies to determine the strengths and weaknesses related to educational system. The comparison of the content of courses is one of the approaches which has been mentioned frequently by the experts of the field. Approximately, since 80 years ago, academic education of architecture in associate degree and contiguous master’s degree courses, began to train map designers, and architects with a compositional entrance exam which was thoroughly based on sketch and basics of architecture. However, since 1372 SH, the written section of the exam was omitted and the Bachelors' degree course was founded in 1377 SH. The present study is conducted to investigate and compare architecture training based on the principles of contiguous master’s degree courses with the principles of the bachelors' and non-countiguous master’s degree courses from university professors, consulting engineers, and graduates' perspective. The current research was an applied research study and was conducted in four consecutive phases (description, interpretation, juxtaposition, & comparison) according to George Z. F. Beredy's (1966) framework. In the initial phase, the content of the course and its goals, aims, and objectives were described in details. Then, in the second phase professors (including experienced academic staff memebers who had the experience of teaching for the both periods of contiguous master’s degree course and non-contiguous master’s degree course) , consulting engineers, and graduates' perspectives regarding the content of architecture education (considering the three foundations of knowledge, wisdom, competence) and the aims were collected during two separate periods of contiguous master’s degree course and non-contiguous master’s degree course. The experienced professors’ view were gathered through interviews and the professor’s view who had been the graduates of contiguous master’s degree course and at the time of study were teaching in non-contiguous master’s degree course were collected through a likert scale questionnaire. The perspectives of employers and graduates who had passed contiguous master’s degree and non-contiguous master’s degree courses were also collected through a likert scale questionnaires. After juxtaposition, the comparison was carried out rigoroudsly. The results revealed that the professors, employers, and graduates preferred contiguous Master’s degree courses in the three mentioned foundations. They believed that contiguous master’s degree course is more likely to train competent architects and practically the graduates of the non-contiguous master’s degree course do not obtain the competency of a perfect architect. Thus, it is recommended that the contiguous master’s degree course be revived and besides, the bachelors’ degree course be continued merely for training assistant designers.

Since the 1980s, local government systems in Europe have undergone significant institutional changes and territorial reforms. According to Wollmann (2008; 2012), these reforms seek to address two main issues, namely the lack of accountability and transparency (democratic deficit) and the inability to deal with social, economic and environmental problems (functional deficit). Some also believe that the expansion of local government reforms is due to the fact that this level of government is most affected by the continuation of the global financial crisis and austerity policies (Bouckaert and Kuhlmann, 2016; Gardner, 2017). The bulk of these reforms in European countries with different political and administrative systems, whether federal or unitary, as well as transitional systems in Eastern European countries, have focused on strengthening local executive and political leadership through the reforms of administrative structures, decentralization and increase of local autonomy (Ladner et al, 2016; Ladner et al, 2015). To this must be added changes in the local government types. In Iran, above-mentioned democratic and functional deficits have led to various debates and research on the institutional, financial and operational dimensions of the local government in recent decades. These include Barakpour and keivani, 2016; Barakpour and Asadie, 2011 and show different and complicated problems in the country’s local management and leadership. Political, functional and territorial fragmentation, unsustainability of municipalities’ revenues and, generally, inefficiency of local leadership are regarded as instances of these problems. The main purpose of this article is to investigate the typology of urban management system in Iran and the trend of its changes utilising historical and actor-centered institutionalism. According to this approach, three main stages in the establishment and development of the local government system in Iran can be distinguished and differentiated. The first period (1905-1930) returns to the Constitutional Revolution more than a century ago and the transition from traditional government to rule-based government and the formation of modern political institutions. The second period (1930-1978), shortly after the Constitutional Revolution, begins with the establishment of the Pahlavi regime and lasts about five decades. The third period (from 1979 to present) relates to Iran’s revolution of the 1970s and the establishment of the Islamic Republic four decades ago. Each one of these periods highlight different forms of the distribution of power between the central and local levels of government as well as the relations between legislative and Executive bodies. Analysis of the relationship between the main actors of power at the central and local levels indicates the general characteristics of the local government system in each period. The results show that stability in the horizontal dimension and fluctuation in the vertical dimension of power relations, central government interference in local affairs, the lack of political resolve in decentralization, The Vague Prospect of Reforms in the Local Government System and Continued Procedural and Substantive Problems are the most important points in relation with urban management in Iran, especially in the contemporary era. 

Geometry, meaning the knowledge of size determination, can be considered as a hidden and evident architectural style of various periods that have been used both from theoretical and practical aspects in the construction of buildings in the past. Considering the importance of geometry in art and architecture, research on geometric principles shaping architectural works can be considered an important field for study. One of the special structures that Iranian architects have made a lot of effort to create is "Dome" which is one of the most important elements of Iranian architecture. The dome has special features that distinguish it from the arch. Some of the most important of these features are the sign, the prominence and the appearance of distant distances. For including these features the dome have to hold specific concepts, such as the depth and breadth of the span, the concepts that affect the geometry of the plot and the proportions of the building. Double shell discontinuous dome is one of Iranian domes, in which most of the features mentioned are found together. These domes are diverse in terms of geometric form and construction techniques. This variety and abundance has made many aspects of the geometry and the technology of these buildings still unknown, which need to be studied. The necessity of this discussion is significant from two dimensions of theoretical geometry and practical geometry. Today, due to the very limited information of the past ideas and techniques, it is necessary to draw out theoretical geometry by analyzing practical geometry in buildings. Studies on discontinuous double shell domes mostly indicate their stylistic and structural characteristics and in terms of geometry there are lack of researches. The present research is an attempt to find the answer to these question: what is the relationship between theoretical and practical geometry in design and construction of discontinuous double shell domes? What are the main factors affecting discontinuous double shell domes design and construction process? To answer questions, the theoretical foundations of geometry usage in Iranian architecture were investigated. Then, the study was carried out on the case study and applying principles extracted in the theoretical part and finally the geometric process which forms the building was decoded. This research aims to explain the way of implementing theoretical geometry and transforming it into practical geometry. Findings show that the design and construction process follows a predetermined design system in which the principal forming shapes are square, circle, and pentagon and the proportions of the components are also based on golden ratio(Ɵ), so the proportions apply to the plan, cross section, and facade. Also knowledge and ability of architect in theoretical and practical geometry has been the main factor in design and construction process of these domes in Iran. The results can be beneficial in restoration and rebuilding of domed buildings specially in cases that some parts are missing and there is lack of documentation. Also as the results help to reading out the Iranian vernacular knowledge, would be effective in design and construction of modern shell structures.

With the start of the Pahlavi era, the process of modernizing Iran's arrival, which began from the Qajar era, became more intense. With the continuation of this trend, one of the areas where the works of modernization emerged were architecture and urbanization. Architecture and Urbanization caused the appearance of city views in the buildings. Most of the buildings built around the streets during this period were brick and brickwork. The construction instructions were the same for the government, and for all the cities of Iran. In the meantime, there were differences and similarities in the brick decoration of various cities. This research tries to answer some questions by comparing the bricks in the two cities of Isfahan and Tehran. The questions are: What are the similarities and differences between the bricks of these two cities and what are the reasons for their creation? How does modernism affect the brickwork of these two cities? Regarding the subject of this research, its method from the perspective of the goal is a developmental research. The data collection in this research has been field-based (photographing of buildings) and library, and the result is an exploratory study with interpretation. The research is presented in five chapters, in which topics such as modernism in Iran, architecture and urbanization of the Pahlavi era, the structure of the city of Isfahan and Tehran in this period, the common trends of the architecture of this era, the history of brickwork in Iranian architecture, the types of brick decoration of this period Etc. In the last , by examining examples of the bricks of these two cities and taking into account the issues discussed in the preceding parts, we tried to determine the factors affecting the formation and creation of similarity and difference Determine the brickwork. In the last part of this research, the similarities and differences between brickwork in terms of the type of brick, the location of the facade, the geometry of brickwork, the composition of brickwork with other decorations and ... were examined. The overall result of the study of brickwork in these two cities was that the bricks of Isfahan in terms of size and size of brick, brick designs used, more elegance, working and combining with tiling and ... more connected with Ornaments and brickwork have past historic architecture, while in Tehran there is a kind of transformation through highlighting the change in size and , and changing the design of the brickwork to the past. The reasons for this could be related to issues such as centralized government policy, the later start of the process of modernism in Isfahan and other cities, and so on. The results of this research can be used for other studies that deal with subjects such as decorations in the contemporary era. Also, the results of this research could lead to the clarification of part of a section in the history of Iranian architecture, which coincided with the advent of modernism in Iran and which has been underestimated, despite its importance.

Urban development and migration from rural to urban areas is one of the major global phenomena. Small and isolated population centers, is increasingly converting to large urban areas that are clearly associated with becoming natural areas for urban use. The issue in developing countries, including Iran, for some reason, such as lack of appropriate distribution of resources and services at the national and regional plans is more severe. In some cities, rapid growth has scattered and fragmented state and has been associated with destruction of agricultural outskirts and wastage of environment resources, especially in the northern cities of Iran that have ecologically valuable lands. To respond to the principle of sustainable development, and to preserve this valuable land, planning need to be aware of the city’s situation in the future to make an appropriate policy.So Sari’s unbridled growth and its different outcomes (environmental, economic, social and physical) forced the writer to guide and control the spread of Sari. Therefore, it has been tried in this project to predict Sari’s urban growth, to provide a basis for planning and policy for city of Sari and the surrounding environment.Physical development is a dynamic and continuous process and if this process become fast with no plan, not only it doesn’t have a proper physical composition of urban spaces, citizens will torment many problems in access to urban services. Also irrational use of urban land, would bring forth detrimental effects on the environment. Also in Iran, these changes have been contained negative impact on social and economic aspects, like lack of coordination among land, urban network and environment patterns and ecological balance of the city.Following paper that has been developed to evaluate the approaches and models of urban growth prediction and use an appropriate model for the sample (City of Sari), is looking forward to provide an accurate prediction of the rate and direction of growth of the city- Sari and its surrounding areas to be an useful guide as a decision- making support system for future planning of the city.In this project by paying attention to goals and facilities, deductive and inductive research methods have been used. Therefor the concepts, theories and approaches related to the development and growth, land, land cover and spatial models have been studied. Then using the inductive method, appropriate model by evaluating different models of city is selected. Finally, after identifying the sample has been studied, selected model for forecasting its growth were conducted.Results of this research showed that the model, SLEUTH, due to its ability to perform spatial-temporal dynamic model, independence to locations, and ability to concurrent simulations of four different types of growth would be more suitable than other models which have been investigated to predict the growth of Sari. Also findings show that the growth of the city by 1410, will be 394 hectares. This growth will be in the West, Northwest, North and East areas of the city, due to the intrinsic growth in these areas.

Ardabil was one of the important and noteworthy cities of Iran in Safavid era. Due to presence of Sheikh Safi al-Din tomb, this city -as Dar-al-aman- had a certain political, social and cultural state in Safavid era which caused Ardabil to be developed and built as a commercial, religious and service center leading to its expansion and growth. However, up to present time, no comprehensive study has been conducted based on analytical evidences and documents. One of the remaining historical documents from this city is a map drawn by Adam Olearius who was a German scholar, mathematician, geographer and librarian. Olearius had made a travel to Iran in Shah Abbas time. On his own traveling, while writing his itinerary, he came to draw some maps from his visited cities based on the components of the physical and spatial structure of cities. In these maps, urban elements have been his main focus. One of the existing historical documents of the city of Ardabil in this period is the map drawn by Adam Olearius in his itinerary. Re-reading this map to reconstruct the structure of Ardabil city during the Safavid era can reveal the structure of this city in that period from different dimensions. Matching Olearius’ drawing map with historical sources and written texts and documents available, including different travelogues and Adam Olearius’ maps will help us to identify good information about the form, physical and spatial organization of the city, according to which understandable drawings of the city can be presented. The research method of this article is interpretive –historic research with an emphasis on content analysis and review of historical documents. According to the only available readable image document from this period, mental maps were processed. The results show that Olearius had an abstract view of cities and presented maps of different cities by comparative study of maps of other cities in unique way. Moreover, it should be noted that he had certain principles and methods in drawing maps as he gave each town a special place and point in which all the dimensions of the city were defined. This particular place could be the most important building of the city, such as the square, the tomb, the emam-zadeh, or even the castle and the minaret. Based on the guide map of Olearius, the city of Ardabil was divided into urban characteristics during the Safavid era. By placing the Sheikh Safi al-Din Ardabili complex in the center of the map and important elements in the structuring of other parts of the city, Olerious has shown the importance of the issue. The city of Ardabil had largely preserved its spatial structure during the Safavid era, in a way that the tomb of Sheikh Safi as the government component of the city, bazaar as the economic component and the Jame’ Mosque as the religious component were of special importance and the main square of the city connected these elements all of which could conceptualize the city in relation to each other.

Yasouj, located in a district with vast wilderness areas, has been named as the Iran Nature Capital and has become one of the major tourism attractions in south of Iran. Despite having unique social- cultural intangible attributes, Since the city itself doesn’t have cultural- historical tangible elements to attract tourism, can be considered a tourism- supporting city that supplies services for eco- tourism of surrounding natural areas. Such a condition has abandoned the city from tourism flow. The creative tourism paradigm, in contrast with other types of tourism that rely on tangible cultural and ecological elements, emphasizes on everyday life of the city and active participative experiences for both tourist and locals. In 2006, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’s Creative Cities Network defined creative tourism as ‘travel directed toward an engaged and authentic experience, with participative learning in the arts, heritage, or special character of a place, and it provides a connection with those who reside in this place and create this living culture (UNESCO, 2006, 3). The common components of creative tourism are ‘participative, authentic experiences that allow tourists to develop their creative potential and skills through contact with local people and their culture’ (Richards, 2011, 1237), and thus it is essentially a learning process which blurs the tourist- locals distinction. This research aimed to explore the role of Yasouj in lived experience of tourism and locals, to understand if they have acceptance for creative tourism patterns and attributes due to the current situation of the city.In literature review this research analyzed the creative tourism paradigm and relevant concepts to shape a conceptual framework. Relying on Inductive Qualitative Content Analysis methodology, this research explored the experience of 32 interviewees (20 tourism and 12 locals) using coding as the main analysis method. An inductive approach, also called data-driven or text-driven, is characterized by a search for patterns and themes to describe the studied phenomenon. During the analysis the researcher looks for similarities and differences in the data, which are described in categories and/or themes on various levels of abstraction and interpretation. The researcher moves from the data to a theoretical understanding – from the concrete and specific to the abstract and general (Graneheim et al., 2017, 30). The eight discovered categories indicate to three different themes, as the research findings, including “city- tourism supporting”, “city- presenting cultural products” and “city- event” explains the interviewee’s experience of Yasouj’s current situation and their image for preferred future situation of tourism. The three themes indicate to necessity of interrelationship between three different levels of roles, not only the creative tourism one, that Yasuj should play for tourism; in district (macro) level, connection to the eco- tourism; in city level (meso), supporting an interconnected network of cultural- tourism areas and places; in public space level (micro) supporting livable eventful public spaces. This research findings describes tourism, including the current situation and the capacities for future, for those cities that, similar to Yasouj, are presenting as a tourism-support for surrounding ecological areas.

Living in crowded urban areas and minimal houses, and exposure to pressure and environmental stress, threatening the physical and psychological health of citizens in the long run. In this regard, an environment that facilitates the relaxation of the mind from everyday life conditions is a preferred environment. The reason for the preference of such environments is the ability to "restoration." Such as "Restorative environments" by repairing the resources and depleted capacity of the individual, enables them to meet their needs and demands. The studies of restoration environment are concentrated on the benefits of communication with nature, and during thirty years of its existence, so far in its different socio-cultural platforms, this theory has been frequently used and tasted. According to the position of nature in Iranian culture, attention to this theory is relevant in the socio-cultural context of Iranian, especially in today's conditions that tangible communication with nature, especially in metropolitan, has been weakened. Due to the presence of long hours of special classes such as disabled, elderly, children and women in the home, new working conditions such as teleworking and attention to the home as a place to escape from work outdoors, it is necessary to contemplate the possibility of clearing of mind and relaxation in the home context. Since this approach, like other approaches to environmental psychology, is valuable when it leads to the improvement of users' health by leading experts to planning and design, it is necessary to identify the types of restoration environments and their characteristics. The present study attempts to explore the physical and social components of the restoration in the context of daily life to recreate the restoration environment. in this regard, two questions arise: "How individuals seek refuge after dealing with the pressures and limitations of everyday life?" and "What is the specification of a restoration environment?". In this study, a semi-structured interview with 100 inhabitants of two residential complexes in Tehran, in the framework of theoretical studies, is taken to test the restoration theory in the socio-cultural context of Iran and to extract the vocabulary and phrases refer to restoration and to clarify this concept. The present study shows that it can be found restoration in residential environments on a different scale ranging from micro to macro. Despite all the benefits that are associated with the surrounding nature such as communal spaces between structural blocks and neighborhood park, the limitation of such collective spaces in many minimal residential complexes and also the necessity of frequent experience of nature and the importance of ease of access to it, the "balcony" in the housing arena as a semi-open space in and outside, in case of having some spatial qualities and the possibility of carrying out different activities in it, can be very restorative. The results of this research, while introducing the architects and the designers of the environment with the topic of restoration, make them sensitive to the experience of nature by assigning appropriate levels to the balcony in residential buildings.