پژوهشنامه ادیان
سال چهاردهم شماره 2 (پیاپی 28، پاییز و زمستان 1399)

In the twentieth century has no philosopher tried as much as Heidegger to go beyond philosophical concepts and reflections. From the period known as the "Kehre", Heidegger's thought has entered into a field of intellectual experience and a borderline realm that goes beyond purely rational thought and does not follow its rules. Many commentators have interpreted this way of thinking as similar to the way of Mystik thinking and doubt its ability to answer philosophical questions. By Mystik they mean a kind of thinking that shrugs off the burden of rationality and reason has no access to it. In this article, however, Mystik, that means "philosophical mysticism", is a school of thinking in Christianity that is tied to the name of Meister Eckhart. It covers a wide range of subjects, not all of which necessarily agree with philosophy. In examining the relation of Heidegger's thought to "philosophical mysticism", a report is first given of his own position on this concept. In the next step, in order to find out how close Heidegger's thought is to "philosophical mysticism", we show, in comparing the differences and common aspects of the meanings of both Eckhart's and Heidegger's concept of "releasement (Gelassenheit)".

Soltan Ṣahāk has founded Yārsān (Ahl-i haq) in 14th century C.E. and Yārsān’s followers have expanded in parts of Kermanshah, Kurdestan, Hamedan, Lurestan, Azarbaijan, Mazandaran and Iraq. There are both theoretical and practical elements in Yārsāni tradition which are reflected in its rich mythology so one can trace Yārsāni theology, cosmology and anthropology in their myths. According to these myths, although God is transcendent, He has a close connection with men and angels. This ideas justifies their belief in God's incarnations (dunādun). God with the aid of angels creates the world and this idea on the one hand clarifies the relationship between God and angles and, on the other hand, is a source for several Yārsāni rituals such as Tanbour-playing and their cult of sacrifice. Some of Yārsāni myths have their roots in more ancient myths. However, by studying Yārsāni myths one can acquire a deeper understanding about their beliefs and rituals. This article tries to survey Yārsāni theology, cosmology, angelology and anthropology according to their myths.

"A'yān-i-Thābita" ("the Eternal Essences of Things") and "archetypes" are two fundamental terms in two different intellectual systems. Ibn Al-Arabi by a mystical approach and Jung by an analytical approach use the terms "A'yān-i-Thabita" and "archetypes" and attribute some characteristics and functions to them. This article tries to find an answer to the question about the differences and similarities between the characteristics and functions of "A'yān-i-Thabita" and "archetypes" in the viewpoint of Ibn Al-Arabi and Jung. This study shows that both thinkers believe in the existence of the basic ideas in cognition and do not consider the soul/psyche empty. Ibn Al-Arabi considers these ideas as the eternal essences of things, rationales in divine knowledge, which have existential ability manifested by the creative imagination. But Jung considers archetypes, for example the archetype of self or God, as the primary images emerge from human instinct reflected in religious and mythical symbols. Consequently, Ibn Al-Arabi deals with "God" but Jung studies "the idea of God".

Throughout human history, some nodes have had a lot of sacred value. This has been the focus of religious historians since the nineteenth century. These studies, from Fraser to Eliade, have been largely based on magical practices and beliefs, especially with a symbolic approach, and in recent years have focused on the symbolic value of nodes and their function in the context of everyday life. In this study, sacred nodes, from the perspective of geographical and cultural breadth, from mythological to religious beliefs and their symbolic meaning, which imply a complexity, connection and hidden secrets, are considered and its purpose, Achieving common ground and general format in different areas. It seems that sacred knots, which are the result of human activity to influence supernatural factors, are within the general framework of sacred bonds and covenants. The knot, like the covenant in the Abrahamic religions, is a sign of a bond with a formal, vital, and serious covenant that has had a decisive effect on human life. This research is a qualitative research and has been written using written sources.

The Apocalypses, as the writings which narrate the revelations about the occurrences of the finality of the world, have much in common in Judeo and Christian traditions in terms of form and content. One of their common features is pseudepigraphy, i.e. the attribution of the Jewish apocalypses to the most prominent Jewish figures including Moses, through which the real authors could have accentuated on the authority of their works. The authors of the Christian apocalypses, like their Jewish counterparts, attributed their works to the prominent Christian figures. Meanwhile, the Book of Revelation is one of the most significant Christian apocalypses that its author explicitly refers to his name, John, as the author of it. Thus, since the early centuries of Christian history, many discussions have been made concerning the identity of the author by the Christian thinkers, which have even continued until today. This article is seeking to present a clear picture of the identity of the author according to some historical accounts, the ideas of the early Christian thinkers and the ideas of the modern scholars. The present study indicates that John was one of the early Christian prophets who was engaged in his religious ministry in Asia Minor.

The doctrine of "Caliph of God" is an important doctrine in Islamic theology and is the most important basis for thinking about the superiority of man. Considering the influence of Islamic mysticism on the formation of Islamic theology, this study seeks to investigate the use and evolution of the meanings of this term in mystical texts. Our method for this research is the analysis of the descriptive content of the first mystical texts up to the 11th century AH. The findings of this study show that the phrase "Caliph of God" has been used four times in all books of the second and third centuries AH. Later, in the fourth and fifth centuries AH, it is still rare to see this phrase in mystical texts; but its frequency has increased compared to the past. But from the sixth and seventh centuries onwards, this phrase has been used extensively. In the following centuries, the use of "Caliph of God" has been completely institutionalized and its examples have become diverse; but the most important example was the "Perfect Man." Also throughout these centuries, many Sufis have always explicitly or indirectly opposed to the use of the term and avoided mentioning it.

One of the most vehement defenders of Christianity, Origen for the first time ever in Christian studies used the word, homoousios to define the relation of god the son/divine logos with respect to God himself. To him, God the Father and the divine Logos are of the same substance but possess different functions and properties, and each plays its part in divinity according to its own function. He differentiates substantively between God the Father and God the Son, which culminates in the proposition of a linear relation between the two divine hypostases. Origen posits that the divine word was incarnated in the body of Jesus Christ and settled on earth. The incarnate Logos possess two divine and human natures, and whose human nature is an incarnate God who purposely attained human form and countenance to help bring about human deliverance and salvation. Incarnation of the divine Logos is the completion of a pledge that god has made with man before the creation of this world. This research attempts to examine Origen’s standing in Christian theology and delve deeper into his notions of Christology.

Shaikh Nizāmuddin 'Ulyā'(1325 C.E.) was one of the famous Sufis of India and Kabir (1518 C.E.) was one of the Indian mystics, both emphasized love and tolerance as the main element of mystical journey. The activities of Shaikh Nizāmuddin 'Ulyā'and his successorsled to the spread of the Chishtiyya dynasty and the promotion of the Persian language and Islam in the Indian subcontinent. According to Nizāmuddin love is a basic prerequisite for Muslim prayers. Divine love is manifested in the form of love to the pīr (mystical instructor) and in a broader sense it encompasses all creatures. Kabir as one of the famous poets and mystics of India, along with his followers, played an important role in promotion of Bhakti (love) cult in India. It is not clear Kabir was either a Hindu or a Muslim. Both groups try to introduce him as a member of their own cult. However, Kabir himself strongly criticizes the outward aspects or superficiality of both religions. He believes that love is the essence of religion so he emphasizes the Bhakti cult as the best way of praying. He also speaks of the love of guru as a main element in mystical path.

This research analyzes the attribute of greed according to the Sufis' educational works up to the 9th century AH. This study is a descriptive-analytical one, shows that greed undergoes content change in three levels of behavior. In the first stage of mystical journey (farq, "difference"), greed is recognized as a negative attribute. Therefore, this level requires that the seeker has a diligent and prudent approach in avoiding greed. In the second stage of mystical journey (fanā', "annihilation") because of the divine ecstasy the seeker's self becomes empty of all mundane attributes. Therefore, in this stage, due to this mystical annihilation, the inferior attribute (greed) becomes despair. In the third stage (baqā', "survival"), the mystic becomes the manifestation of the divine attributes. Greed in this stage, becomes a positive attribute. So greed interprets as the lover yearning to his beloved. Our findings show that although the Sufis' educational works are mainly against the greed, some of their words promote it as a positive attribute in the final stage of mystical journey.

The Orthodox Church, presenting itself as the extension of early Christianity’s Orthodoxy, has created a distinctive theology system based on early doctrines of God. Comprehending this Church and its theology without having a true perception of its special doctrine of God is not feasible. This doctrine is mainly based on Orthodox Church’s special approach toward “unknowability of God”. This approach is the key term to a true perception of this Church which can be traced back to “Father” ’s distinguished role in Orthodox Trinity. Speaking in negative language is regarded as an integral part of this doctrine which is based on Transcendence and Unknowability of God. Therefore, Orthodox Church is characterized by Apophatic Theology. In the next step, to fill the gap between creatures and such a Transcendence and Unknowable Being, “Energy Concept” has been proposed by this church. Energy is the revealed or perceptible form of Transcendent God. Orthodox believers try to unite with Energy of God to obtain the Deification status which is considered as ultimate purpose of life. Sacraments and Icons are primary passages of Holy Energy. This study aims to investigate Orthodox approach regarding the “Unknowability of God” in three stages of Roots, Language and Consequence.

The present article, based on a comparative view, has studied the word "dharaʼ" in the Qur’ān and Sacred Jewish-Christian Texts and, with a historical approach has focused on the etymology of this word in Arabic, Hebrew, Syriac and Aramaic. An etymological investigation is useful in explaining some of the patterns governing the consonantal substitution and phonological phenomena between the aforementioned languages. Based on such an investigation, the connection between the forms "dharʼ" and "dharw" as well as the consonantal substitution of the Hebrew «ה» (he) with the consonants Hamza and Waw in Arabic has been explained. According to this study, the conceptual metaphor of "people are harvest" is used in the Qur’ān and the Sacred Jewish-Christian texts. In this conceptual metaphor, the target domain is harvest and the source domain is people. Also, the highlighted aspect is consisting of two pure and impure or valuable and worthless parts. This research shows that the aforementioned sacred texts following the worldview of their first audiences have used metaphorical language to efficiently express those educational and cultural teachings that are related to the abstract matters. Not paying attention to this language and its features can confuse the commentators.

In this paper, the views of Shmuel Eisenstadt about the emergence of transcendental visions in the religions of axial age are analyzed in a descriptive-analytic method. Eisenstadt considers the most important religious transformation of the axial age to be the emergence of transcendental visions in Judaism, Confucianism, Hinduism, and Buddhism. In his analysis, transcendental visions distinguished between two realms of transcendental order (refined) and mundane order (polluted), and all attempts for the resolution of the tension between transcendental order and mundane order led to the institutionalization of some different orientations in axial age religions: this-worldly orientation (proper performance of worldly duties) in Confucianism; other-worldly orientation (act of renunciation) in Hinduism and Buddhism; and combination of this and other-worldly orientations (legal rules, cultic orientation, ritual prescriptions and ethical injunctions) in Judaism. In Eisenstadt's viewpoint, the institutionalization of these orientations led to the reconstruction of mundane order in some aspects: Appearance of secular rulers who were partially responsive to the transcendental order; and the separation of collective identity based on sacredness from the other types of collective identities based on civility and primordiality.