نشریه علوم باغبانی
سال سی و پنجم شماره 1 (پیاپی 49، بهار 1400)

Salinity is an environmental problem in the world, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. High amounts of salts like sodium chloride (NaCl) in the soils and water have destructive effects on yield of plants. The harmful effects of salinity on plant growth are related to the low osmotic potential of the soil solution (water stress), the nutritional imbalance, the specific ion effect (salt stress), or the combination of these factors. The relationship between salinity and plant mineral nutrition is complicated. Under salinity stress, occurs the sodium and chlorine accumulation, resulting in ionic imbalance and the deficiency symptoms of nutrients in plants. The sodium (Na+) competes with the uptake of potassium (K+), calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) by plant, and the chlorine (Cl-) with the uptake of nitrates (NO3-), phosphates (PO43-) and sulfates (SO42-).
In order to evaluate the tolerance of spinach cv. “virofly” to salinity levels in application with different nitrogen rates, a greenhouse experiment was conducted as completely randomized design based on factorial arrangement with three replications at Shiraz University Agricultural Faculty. Treatments include four levels of salinity (without salinity, 1, 2 and 3 gr of sodium chloride per kg of soil, equivalents to 0.7, 4.5, 8 and 11.5 dS/m in saturated solution extract of soil, respectively), and five levels of nitrogen (unfertilized, 75, 150, 225 and 300 mg N/kg of soil) as urea source. Nitrogen treatments were applied in two installments in water soluble (half before planting and another half, 20 days after planting). In order to prevent sudden stress, saline treatments were applied gradually after complete plant establishment with irrigation water. The irrigation of the pots was carried out with distilled water and at field capacity. After 56 days of sowing, in every pot the spinach shoots were discarded near the surface of the soil and the required parameters were measured.
The application of 4.5 and 8 dS/m salinity had no significant effect (≤0.05) on the relative yield and spinach leaf area, but 11.5 dS/m salinity significantly (≤0.05) decreased relative yield and spinach leaf area compared to without salinity level, 4.5 and 8 dS/m. Nitrogen application (75 and 150 mg/kg of soil) alleviated negative effect of salinity on yield and leaf area. Application of 225 and 300 mg N/kg of soil with 11.5 dS/m salinity significantly decreased the relative yield of spinach. The highest and lowest shoot water content changes in salinity conditions were observed in no-nitrogen application and 150 mg N/kg application, respectively, which shows that the application of nitrogen in the medium level controls the water changes in the spinach plants. In this study, increasing the amount of nitrogen at all levels of salinity, elevated the shoot water content. The tolerant plant species in the face of environmental stresses maintain the water content of their cells in the higher levels. Therefore, it can be said that the maintenance of high leaf water content is an important mechanism for tolerance to salinity, and the cultivars that can hold more water in their leaves under stress conditions, will have more tolerance to salinity stress. Linear regression (R2 = 0.8198) showed that in the salinity levels of 4.5 to 11.5 dS/m, there is a negative relationship between the yield and the chlorine to nitrogen ratio (Cl/N) of spinach shoots, so that with increasing Cl/N, the spinach shoot yield decreased by gradient of -3.077. Application of nitrogen up to 225 mg/kg of soil gradually reduced the ratio of K/Na, Ca/Na and Mg/Na, however, the application of 300 mg N/kg of soil had no significant effect on these ratios. The application of different levels of salinity gradually reduced the K/Na, Ca/Na and Mg/Na ratio.
The threshold of salinity of spinach cv. “virofly” was about 8 dS/m in our study, this was above the threshold mentioned (2 dS/m) for spinach in most sources. The application of nitrogen in medium level as urea can improve the negative effects of salinity in spinach but intensive nitrogen fertilization may increase the negative effects of salinity on plant yields.

Postharvest handling of tropical flowers is usually difficult due to their sensitivity to cold temperatures. Anthurium(Anthurium andraeanum)is a tropical plant used in ornamental industry for its beautiful spathe and leaves. It can be produced in wide ranges of climates; in locations far away from their original habitats in greenhouses. Although, anthurium has long vase life compared to other cut flowers, postharvest exposure to cold temperatures makes some restrictions on its desirable vase life. This study aimed to investigate the effects of different light spectra on postharvest performance of anthurium cut flowers. Cut flowers of Anthurium andraeanum cultivars with red ('Calore') and white ('Angel') spathes were obtained from a commercial anthurium greenhouse on the morning. Anthurium cut flowers were harvested when 40-50% of the spadix true flowers were fully opened. Each flower was placed in closed flasks containing 500 mL water. Sixty flasks with cut flowers (30 cut flowers from each cultivar) were placed into chambers with exactly similar conditions but with different light spectra including white (W), blue (B), red (R) and 70% R+30% B (RB) provided by LED production modules and darkness. Each flower under light spectra was inspected and the vase life of the all flowers, change in spathe angel, spathe area, maximum quantum yield of photosystem II (Fv/Fm) and fluorescence decline ratio (RFD) were measured during 14 days exposure to 4 °C storage. Spathe 'angel' seven and 14 days following exposure to cold storage was dramatically increased in B light while the lowest changes were observed in R light of the both cultivars. Vase life of anthurium cut flowers were significantly (P≤0.01) influenced by the interaction between light spectra and cultivars. Among the light spectra, the longest vase life were observed in spathes exposed to R light in both cultivars. In 'Angel', exposure to B light dramatically shortened the vase life of anthurium cut flowers in comparison with the other light spectra. A positive relationship was detected between spathe area and vase life of cut flowers, while the relationship between spathe 'angel' and vase life was negative. No photosynthetic activity was detected on the spathe of anthurium, but the peduncle of anthurium showed the photosynthetic activity. The highest Fv/Fm and RFD values were detected in darkness and the lowest values for Fv/Fm and RFD were observed in R and RB-exposed spathes. No relationships was observed between the photosynthetic activities and the vase life of anthurium cut flowers. Although there are some reports confirmed the importance of plant growth under different light spectra on its postharvest quality, there is no report regarding the effects of light spectra on the quality of cut flowers in postharvest stage. Similar to anthurium, some reports indicated that there is no relationship between the photosynthesis and the quality of harvested products. Exposure of anthurium cut flowers to different light spectra resulted in alterations of morphology and quality during exposure to low temperatures. B spectrum had strong negative effects on the morphology and quality of anthurium cut flowers, while exposure to R light resulted in improvement of quality of anthurium cut flowers with less negative effects on their morphology. Spathe of anthurium had no photosynthetic activity, while its peduncle showed the photosynthetic activity. There were significant relationships between morphology and vase life of anthurium cut flowers, while no relationships were found between photosynthetic activity and their vase life. In conclusion, lighting environment during postharvest of anthurium cut flowers should be take into account for keeping their quality under low temperature conditions. Red light spectrum was introduced as the best light treatment to reduce chilling injury, increase the vase life and maintain the quality of anthurium cut flowers in both cultivars.

Evening primrose (Oenothera biennis L.) is a relatively new oilseed crops with high value which its oil is the most important source of gamma linolenic acid. In this study, seed of Evening primrose was stored in different temperature and packaging materials to improve the content and quality of its oil.

In order to study the effect of packaging, storage temperature and storage period on Evening primrose seed oil properties, a split-plot in time experiment was conducted on the basis of completely randomized design at 32 treatments and three replications. Treatments included four levels of storage period (3, 6, 9 and 12 months) as main plot, four levels of packaging (Paper with 0.15 mm, Aluminum with 0.12 mm, PolyVinylChloride (PVC) with 0.09 mm and Cellophane with 0.07 mm thickness) and two levels of temperature (4 °C and Ambient temperature (20 °C)) as sub plots. Seed packages of 100 grams stored in plant physiology laboratory of horticulture department of Ferdowsi university of Mashhad from May 2014 to May 2015. After each period of storage seed oil (extracted by soxhelet) acid and peroxide value were examined as oil quality index. The statistical analysis was performed using the JMP software version 8 and data means were compared using LSD test’s in 5% level of probability. Acid and peroxide value were measured according to standards of EEC REG 2568/91 and AOCS cd 8-53, respectively.

Based on the results, the simple effect of temperature, packaging material and storage time was significant on all the properties of evening primrose oil. Before storage, seed oil content was 16.45% (w/w) but after three months of storage the oil content increased to 19.75% w/w. From third month of storage until 9th a sharp decline was observed, and the oil content was 12.71 % w/w at the end of 9th months. Finally the seed oil content slightly increased until 12thmonth. Before storage, acid and peroxide value were reported 1.16 (mg KOH/g oil) and 2.4 (meq O2/Kg oil), respectively. During storage, acid value showed descending trend so that at the end of 6 and 12 months storage obtained 1.08 and 0.96 mg KOH/g oil, respectively. Oil peroxide value after third months reached to 3.14 (meq O2/Kg oil) and its maximum (9.82 meq O2/Kg oil) was detected at the end of storage period. Ambient temperature in terms of oil content and 4 °C in terms of oil quality were optimum condition for Oenothera seed storage. Seeds samples which packed in paper and cellophane material showed the most oil content (17.29% and 16.75%, respectively). Cellophane packaging in terms of acid (0.89 mgKOH/g oil) and peroxide value (5.05 meq O2/Kg oil) was diagnosed the best packaging material to preserve the quality of the oil during storage. Interaction between storage temperature and storage period on oil percentage was significant at 1%. The highest oil percentage (59/22%) was detected after three months of storage at ambient temperature. Interaction between packaging and storage temperature on acid value of evening primrose seed oil was significant at 1% as aluminum packaging at ambient temperature and paper packaging in both temperatures had the highest acid value (1.15 and 1.11mg KOH/g oil, respectively). The lowest acid value (0.82 mg KOH/g oil) was detected in cellophane packaged seeds at 4°C temperature. Interaction between packaging material and storage period on acid value of evening primrose seed oil was significant at 1%. The highest acid value (1.24 mg KOH/g oil) obtained after six months in paper packaged seeds and seeds samples which packed in cellophane material had the lowest acid value (0.72 mg KOH/g oil) after nine months of storage. Interaction between storage temperature and storage period on acid value of evening primrose oil was significant at 1%. The highest acid value (1.11mgKOH/g oil) was detected after 12 months of storage at ambient temperature. At the end of 12th months at 4 °C temperature, the lowest acid value (0.81mg KOH/g oil) was reported. Interaction between packaging material, storage temperature and storage period on acid value of evening primrose seed oil was significant at 1% as paper packaged seeds after six months of storage at 4°C temperature and cellophane packaged seeds after 12 months of storage at ambient temperature showed the highest acid value (1.34 mg KOH/g oil). The end of 9th months in cellophane packaged seeds at both temperature, the lowest acid value (0.72 mg KOH/g oil) obtained. Interaction between packaging material and storage period on peroxide value of evening primrose oil was significant at 1% as paper packaged seeds after 12 months of storage had the highest peroxide value (11meq O2/Kg oil). Seeds samples which packed in PVC and cellophane material after three months showed the lowest peroxide value (2.15 and 1.85 meq O2/Kg oil, respectively). Interaction between storage temperature and storage period on peroxide value of evening primrose oil was significant at 1%. The highest peroxide value (10.01meq O2/Kg oil) was detected after 12 months of storage at ambient temperature. After three months of storage at 4°C temperature the lowest peroxide value (2.65 meq O2/Kg oil) obtained. Interaction between packaging material, storage temperature and storage period on peroxide value of evening primrose seed oil was significant at 1% as paper packaged seeds after 12 months of storage at 4°C temperature had the highest peroxide value (12 meq O2/Kg oil). The lowest peroxide value (1.60 meq O2/Kg oil) was detected in cellophane packaged seeds after three months of storage at 4 °C temperature.

Overall, evening primrose seed storage in paper and cellophane packaging during three months at ambient temperature to improve the content of oil was desirable. Seed storage in paper packaging at ambient temperature after12 months, reduced oil quality. Seeds samples which packed in PVC and cellophane material at 4°C temperature preserved the quality of evening primrose oil.

Citrus trees are among the most important tropical and subtropical fruit trees in the world. In recent years, newfound disorders have become a serious danger to citrus growing. In the last two years in Jahrom city and surrounding towns, there have been numerous reports about the rapid drying of whole of citrus trees or parts of them. Following studies by expert groups, the problem was referred to as "Citrus decline". Most researchers have divided the main causes of decline into biotic and abiotic groups. In fact, the disorder of citrus decline refers to any type of disorder, disease or problem that can ultimately lead to tree weakness and loss. In fact, decline can be considered a synonym for death.

In this study, 64 orchards located in the cities of Jahrom, Juyom, Khafr and their suburbs were studied. Each orchard consisted of at least 100 trees of ‘Lisbon’ cultivars (one to ten years old). Evaluations were carried out periodically and with a two-month intervals from March 1976 to November 1977. On the one hand decline rate and on the other hand desiccating rate (tree with complete drying) were measured. Average monthly air temperature, sodium absorption ratio (SAR), irrigation water, soil texture, manure consumption, irrigation amount ​​and methods, and spatial and temporal distribution of irrigation water were measured. Longitude, latitude and altitude were recorded using GPS. The meteorological data were obtained from weather station of Jahrom city. Soil sampling was performed using standard methods from all orchards. After determining the soil texture type, in order to data convert from qualitative to quantitative according to the amount of clay available, the numbers 1 to 10 were assigned to each sample. Number 5 was considered as medium and standard soil texture. If manure was applied, one unit was added to the soil texture score of less than 5 and one unit was subtracted from the numbers above 5. The presence or absence of shading on the studied trees (Green lace or palm tree) was assigned to zero and one numbers, respectively. Numbers zero and one were assigned to applied or non-applied soil sodium solute reducing fertilizers, respectively. The amount of clay, SAR (sodium absorption ratio) in irrigation water were obtained using the usual measurement methods in soil and water experiments. Data were analyzed using SPSS software (version 25) and Path analysis diagram was plotted using AMOS software (version 24). Multivariate statistical analyzes including factor analysis, correlation, cluster analysis and path analysis were performed to determine the relationships between variables and the percentage of decline.

According to the results of factor analysis, the first four factors accounted for 80.53% of the total variation. The first component (soil physical properties) including clay and soil texture accounted for 26.37% of the total variance. The second component (salt evaporation and accumulation) included temperature, mean age of the trees, and the rate of sodium absorption ratio (SAR) with accounting of 23.95% of the total variance. Significant correlations were observed between decline and mean tree age, decline and clay percentage, decline and presence of shading. Almost all of the declined trees reached the full drying stage, which is justified by the high correlation of the decline with desiccating (r=0.90 **). Percentage of decline had the highest correlation with tree age (r=0.67 **). Percentage of complete desiccating of the tree was also highly correlated with tree age (r=0.51 **). T-test to determine the correlation between two-level nominal variables such as application of shading (presence or absence of shading) and anti-salinity compounds (application or not application of salinity fertilizers) with decline occurrence was used. The mean percentage of decline was 29.66% in trees under shade and 57.40% in trees without shade. In general, the rate of decline in trees without shading is twice more than trees with shading. Path analysis identified the direct and indirect effects of variables on the rate of decline.

It was generally found that the decline is a multivariate physiological disorder that largely, can be controlled by some orchard management operations. In the meantime, temperature control and soil texture correction are important, especially in older trees. Increased temperature is one of the major causes of citrus decline that is also indirectly associated with other deteriorating factors. Soil quality changes gradually due to various factors so its correction is very important in reducing the incidence of this disorder.

Zamifolia, Zamioculcas zamiifolia, belongs to the family Araceae, In vitro propagation is suggested for increase the propagation rate and disease-free production of explants because of vegetative propagation of Zamifolia. Micropropagation is one of the commercial aspects of indoor cultivation and has many advantages over conventional methods of vegetative propagation. Nitrogen is an important component in the structure of molecules and metabolic compounds in plant cells. It is also a major constituent of amino acids in the structure of proteins. Therefore, nitrogen source and its type are important factors in the application of nutrient solutions, controlling the amount of nitrogen, which is divided into two factors: concentration and type of nitrogen source. In this study, the effects of 2.4, D as plant growth regulator, different concentrations of total nitrogen and nitrate to ammonium ratios on growth of Zamifolia were investigated in separate experiments. According to the results of previous studies, the best explants for achieving full callus and seedling are petiole and main vein leaf. The leaves were rinsed with running water for 20 minutes. The leaves were then immersed in 3.5% sodium hypochlorite under laminar hood for 20 minutes. Next, they were rinsed with sterile distilled water three times and then immersed in 70% alcohol for 60 seconds. Finally, the samples were extracted from alcohol and cultured in a suitable culture medium vertically. In the first experiment, callus production from whole leaf of Zamifolia was studied in MS and 1/2 MS medium with two concentrations of 2,4-D )9.05 and 18.1 M(. In the second experiment, the effect of two concentrations of total nitrogen at 60 and 30 μM and two nitrate to ammonium ratio (1: 3 and 1: 1 ) in presence of naphthalene acetic acid (2.69 μM ) and benzyl amino purine (2.22 μM) were studied on whole plantlet production in the shortest growth period. After 16 weeks of continuous culture in the subculture medium, entire explants with tubers, roots and 1-2 expanded leaves were transferred to ex vitro condition, in peat, peat: perlite (1:1) and sand and then on a shaded greenhouse bench. Statistical analysis of the results was factorial based on completely randomized design with 20 replications, and plantlet production acclimatization test, factorial experiment based on completely randomized design with four replications, were performed and analyzed with SAS software version 9.3 The results of the first experiment showed that the largest calli were produced in MS 1.2 and 2,4-D 9.5 μM. After 16 weeks, largest embryo-like size (4.5 cm2) can be seen in the same treatment under nitrogen concentration (30 μM) and nitrate to ammonium ratio (1: 3). On the other hand, the smallest embryo-like structure size (3.5 cm2) is related to interaction of nitrogen concentration (30 μM) and nitrate to ammonium ratio (1: 1). Overall, the results of the first part of this study showed the best callus induction and growth of Zamifolia callus under culture conditions under modified M.S. 1.2 and 2, 4-D 9.5 μM. Secondly, culture medium NAA 2.69 μM + BAP 2.22 μM and modified M.S. media and nitrogen concentration of 30 μM and nitrate to ammonium ratio (1: 3). The best medium for embryo like structure growth in the early regeneration and seedling production weeks, increased leaf number in the last weeks compared to other treatments. According to this protocol, small number of leaves can be propagated to over a period of about 16 weeks to a large number of Zamifolia plants, which is comparable to other methods of reproduction of this plant, and similar studies that it has been economically justified to do this for about 30 weeks. Based on our results, we can conclude Zamifolia tissue culture can be an effective way to improve it growth conditions which can get acclimatized in ex vitro conditions on peat medium.

Melon, like other members of cucurbitaceae family, is sensitive to cold stress. Applying different cultivation techniques in the nursery can provide some degree of tolerance to environmental stresses in the plants. In the other words, applying stress conditions on plants may cause them to withstand subsequent stresses, this is so called a cross-adaptation or cross-tolerance. For example, Whitaker (1994) showed that cold stress damage can be mitigated by temperature pretreatment. This technique was then used to improve stress tolerance in different plants. In this regard, heat treatment has been used to increase the chilling tolerance in fruits and vegetables. Therefore, in this study, the possibility of increasing cold stress tolerance in melon seedlings using heat shock was investigated.

The experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design (CRD) with three replications and five treatments (including control and spraying with water at temperatures of 20, 45, 50 and 55 °C for 90 seconds) in Faculty of Agriculture of Ilam University in 2019. Heat treatments where used as foliar spray by heated water. After applying different levels of heat treatment and recovery at 24 hours, seedlings were exposed to chilling stress at 3 °C for 6 h in 6 consecutive days. All seedlings were transferred to greenhouse and after 72 hours, the related traits were measured.

Results showed that pre-treated seedlings had higher growth rate than control seedlings at the end of chilling period. Heat shock pretreatment significantly increased the content of chlorophyll, proline and hydrogen peroxide and reduced the amount of malondialdehyde compared to the control. The lowest amount of malondialdehyde (1.14 nmol g-1 fresh weight) was observed in the 50 °C treatment, which was 50% lower than the control. Similar to other environmental stresses, low temperature usually leads ROS production and oxidative stress. Malondialdehyde content is an index to measure membrane lipid peroxidation and its measurement is a criterion of damage to plants in stress conditions. Reduction of malondialdehyde has been reported to increase cell membrane stability and increase stress tolerance in plants. In the present study, heat shock reduced the accumulation of malondialdehyde compared to the control, indicating a decrease in cold effects on the plant. Mei and Song (2010) investigated the effect of heat pretreatment on increasing high temperature tolerance in barley, and reported that using this method by stimulating the synthesis of antioxidant enzymes prevented the increase of malondialdehyde in the plant under heat stress. Therefore, maintaining the membrane structure and decreasing the accumulation of malondialdehyde in melon seedlings under cold conditions indicates an improvement of plant defense responses induced by heat shock. Environmental stresses including cold stress by producing hydrogen peroxide and other free radicals lead to oxidative stress and damage plant cells. Hydrogen peroxide is converted to water by ascorbate peroxidase, peroxide redoxin, glutathione peroxidase and guaiacol peroxidase groups. Therefore, increasing the activity of antioxidant enzymes in plants is one of the most important mechanisms of the plant to cope with stress conditions. In the present study, heat shock pretreatment significantly increased peroxidase (POD) and poly phenol oxidase (PPO) activity and increased the amount of proline and hydrogen peroxide. In this regard, it has been reported that hydrogen peroxide has a dual role in plants and its increase in stress conditions by regulating the production of antioxidant enzymes helps plants to enhance their tolerance to the stress conditions. Our results is in consistent with Ao et al. (2013) report that stated hardening pretreatment of Jatropha curcas seedlings caused to increase the antioxidant enzymes activity, plant glutathione and ascorbate content. The increases in antioxidant enzymes activity by heat shock might be a positive mechanism, which facilitate the scavenging of ROS and induce plant growth and development under chilling stress. These results indicate that antioxidant defense system has a specific role in enhancing plant tolerance to stress conditions and hydrogen peroxide play an important signaling role in plant adaptive responses.

In general, the results showed that heat shock (especially at 50 and 55 oC) caused positive physiological changes in melon seedlings and could increase their tolerance to cold stress conditions.

The study of the nutritional status of orchards is one of the primary priorities for the nutrition of crops and orchards, which is done in different methods. One of these methods is the deviation from the optimum percentage (DOP). Hazelnut is one of the species of the family (Betulaceae) which is the fifth most produced nut in the world after cashews, almonds, walnuts, and oaks. Turkey is the world's largest producer with about 70.3% of the total world production of hazelnuts and Italy with 11.9%, the United States with 4.5%, and Azerbaijan with 4.2%, Georgia with 3.8%, Spain with 2.5% of world production, respectively. Other hazelnut producing countries account for 2.8% of the world production and the world hazelnut production in 2018 was about 888,000 tons. In 2018, Iran was the eighth largest producer in the world with a production of 16,000 tons. Guilan province has 18,000 hectares of hazelnut orchards, which constitute 85% of the cultivated area of hazelnut orchards in the country. Since the leaf is the most important part of plant metabolism and the concentration of nutrients in the leaf at certain stages of plant growth and development has a great relationship with yield. Therefore, leaf analysis and interpretation of the results, provided that according to standard methods, can provide good information about the nutritional status of the plant and be used to recommend the appropriate fertilizer. The optimal Deviation (DOP) method was used to investigate and identify nutritional deficiency and determine the optimal concentration of nutrients. For this purpose, the number of nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, manganese, copper, iron, and zinc were determined in 32 hazelnut orchards with growth of the following year branches in the three major hazelnut production cities (Rudsar, Siahkal, and Amlash), in July. To implement this project, 32 orchards over 10 years old were sampled from the dominant cultivars of the region (Gerd cultivar), so that they are different in terms of management and yield. Seventeen orchards in Eshkavrat region of Rudsar, seven orchards in Hazelnut areas of Siahkal, and eight orchards in the Eshkvarat region of Amlash city were selected for sampling. The orchards that had the best yield due to the great management were randomly selected to determine the standard concentration (Cref) and other low-yield and medium-sized orchards were randomly selected to determine the nutritional status. The orchards were divided into low and high-yield groups in August. When the concentration of nutrients in the leaves was relatively constant, about 50 healthy young leaves were sampling in different directions and 10 trees in each orchard. Pest-free samples were transferred to the laboratory and leaf samples were first washed in water and then washed with distilled water. The samples were placed into the oven at 65 °C for drying. The dried samples were completely powdered and passed through a sieve with half a millimeter holes. In leaf analysis, nitrogen nutrients was measured in a more digestible manner by Kjeltec device, phosphorus by spectrophotometry, potassium by flame photometric, manganese, copper, iron, and zinc by dry ash method and atomic absorption spectrometry. The results showed that the average concentrations of N, P, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu in high-yield orchards were higher than the concentration of nutrients in low-yield orchards. The deviation index was calculated from the optimal percentage and the priority of the nutritional needs of hazelnut trees in each garden was determined. Indicators are positive, negative or zero numbers, zero indicates the optimal statue of concentration, a positive value indicates excess nutrient and a negative number indicates nutrient deficiency. According to the indexes of deviation from the optimal percentage, among the elements manganese, nitrogen and iron had the highest negative index, respectively, so that manganese had negative indexes in 78% of orchards and nitrogen had negative indexes in 65% of orchards, and then Iron had negative indexes in 60% of the orchards and phosphorus in 56% of the orchards, zinc in 53% of the orchards and potassium in 50% of the orchards and finally copper in 46% of the orchards had negative indexes, respectively. Optimal concentrations were determined for nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, iron, manganese, zinc, copper, 3.08%, 0.16%, 0.80%, 570.38 ppm, 175.26 ppm, 42.93 ppm, ppm 17.09 in the leaves. Based on the calculations of the DOP method, the following results were obtained for the priority of feeding the orchards. Mn>N>Fe>P>Zn> K>Cu

Peach (Prunus persica L.) is one of the most essential fruit in Iran and the world. This fruit is suitable for both fresh markets and industrial producer and it is quite favorable by consumers. The efficiency of production is strongly influenced by the chosen peach cultivars. New cultivars are constantly in development by breeders. However, all characteristics are required to be examined include their ecological adaptation ability, productivity, fruit quality, and market value before orchard establishment. Studying the new cultivars is practically essential for exact determination of morphological and phenological features of genotype which is important. However, there is limited information on the global evaluation of fruit quality in breeding progenies and their relationships with pomological traits. Furthermore, the cultivated peach area under Khorasan Razavi province is 1850 ha and the production of fruit is 11283 tons. Therefore, the selection of suitable cultivars for cultivation in the region is very important due to the high economic lifespan of peaches (20-30 years), which in some commercial orchards this period is reduced to 12-15 years. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the pomological and morphological traits of 14 peach genotypes and cultivars in Khorasan Razavi province climatic conditions to select cultivars or genotypes compatible with high quantitative and qualitative performance. This study was performed in two-years (2016-17 and 2017-18) experiments based on a complete randomized block design with three replications on 14 peach cultivars and genotypes in Golmakan Agricultural and Natural Resources Research Station on 4-years-old trees with density planting system at a spacing of 4 ×5 m. The type of applied irrigation was drip irrigation, with common fertilizer. Trees were trained to an open center system. The vegetative (tree height, trunk cross-section, the crown of the tree), phenological (first bloom, full bloom, end of flowering, flowering period, and harvest time) and reproductive (fruit weight, stone weight, fruit length, fruit width, fruit yield, total soluble solids, titratable acidity, flavor index, and pH) traits were evaluated. It is necessary to explain the soluble solids content by Refractometer (Model 7887, Osk Japan) in terms of percentage and acidity by titration with NaOH (0.1 N) based on predominant peach acid, malic acid. The ratio of soluble solids to acidity was obtained by dividing soluble solids by acidity. The pH of the fruit juice was measured with a portable pH meter at room temperature (23–18 °C). Data analysis was performed using SAS software (version 9.2) and means were compared using Duncan's multiple range test. Stepwise regression and cluster analysis (Ward method) was conducted by Minitab software (version 19). Simple correlation (Pearson) between traits from the mean of two-year data was performed using SAS statistical software (version 9.2), in which positive correlation with blue color and negative correlation with red color was determined, which increased the color intensity indicates an increase in the correlation coefficient. The results showed that year and genotype had significantly different effects on all studied traits. ‘Anjiri Maliki’ and ‘Shindabad Hastejoda’ were the earliest and the most late-flowering genotypes, respectively. Among the studied genotypes, ‘Shindabad-5’ and ‘Spring Time’ were the earliest fruiting genotypes, and ‘Meshkinshahr Paeeze’, ‘Kajil’, and ‘Anjiri Zafarani’ were the most late-fruiting genotypes. ‘Haj Kazem’ genotype had the highest tree height (236.18 cm), trunk cross-section (181.83 cm2), and tree crown volume (73.34 cm3), which compared to the control genotype (‘G.H. Hill’) showed  38.62%, 79.9%, and 55.7% increases, respectively. In the second year of the experiment, the characteristics of fruit weight, stone weight, fruit length, fruit width, and fruit yield increased by 41.72%, 43.45%, 16.61%, 16.40% and 81.99%, respectively, compared to the first year. The highest amount of single fruit weight (165.28 g) in ‘Fayette’ genotype, stone weight (7.04 g) and fruit length (65.05 mm) in ‘Shinabad Hastejoda’ genotype, fruit width (66.04 mm) in ‘Shandabad-5’, and fruit yield in ‘Fayette’ and ‘Paeeze Meshkinshahr’ genotypes (with an average of 21.78 and 21.33 kg, respectively) were obtained. ‘Anjiri Zafarani’ genotype had the highest content of soluble solids (16.95%), flavor index (48.38), and acidity (4.65), which compared to control genotype were increased 0.1%, 69.38% and 25.8%, respectively. Fruit yield had a positive and significant correlation with trunk cross-sectional traits, tree crown volume, fruit weight, stone weight, and fruit width. According to this study, the tree height, trunk cross-section, and fruit weight traits were entered into the regression model, respectively, and finally, the traits entered in the model justified 53.23% of the fruit yield changes. Generally, ‘Fayette’ and ‘Shindabad Hastejoda’ genotypes can be recommended as the best genotype for cultivation in the Khorasan Razavi region due to their high quantitative and qualitative yield.

Table grapes (Vitis vinifera L.) is one of the most important fruits that is widely grown in the world and is the export fruit of many countries. Although edible grapes are classified as non-climacteric fruits, they are very prone to spoilage due to their softening, weight loss, and decay caused by fungi, as a result which consequently leads to low storability. Different strategies have been postulated to maintain firmness and control decay of table grapes during storage and improve functional properties of fruit such as pre and postharvest chitosan coatin, and exogenous abscisic acid application. Table grapes have a short shelf life due to the thin pericarp and fleshy texture of the fruit. Polyamines (PAs) application also showed a significant role in extending the storage periods of several fruit species with maintenance of fruit quality. Postharvest treatments are not necessarily the best way of maintaining fruit quality during postharvest period. Such treatments are expensive, increase the risk of fruit damage through extra handling and also encourage grower to pay less attention to on-tree quality. Pre-harvest application considered as a good alternative to cope with mentioned problem. To the best of our knowledge, there is not any report in literature about the role of pre-harvest application of Pas and post-harvest table grape in Aloe vera gel (AVG) as a possible role in reducing mechanical damage of berries which leads to lower decays. Besides these, damage caused by human handling starts at harvest operation, which still occurs by hand for most fruits.

This study was done on 12-year-old mature grape varieties of ‘Yaghouti’ in two independent experiments in the scaffolding garden of Abestan region of Khorramabad city and laboratory post harvesting of horticultural sciences department of Lorestan University in 2019. Therefore, this study investigated the effect of foliar application before harvesting of putrescine (PUT) in three different concentrations (0, 2.0 and 3.0 mM) and immersion post-harvest fruit in AVG (25.0 and 33.0%) on grape fruit quality and shelf life of table grape (Vitis vinifera cv. ‘Yaghouti’) in five times (0, 9, 18, 27 and 36 day) during storage at 4° C.  The study was based on a factorial experiment with two pre-harvest spraying factors with PUT and post-harvest immersion in aloe vera gel (AVG) with three replications. The parameters of soluble solids (TSS), titratable acids (TA), ascorbic acid, total anthocyanin content (TCA), total phenol content (TPC), fruit firmness, shelf life of table grape (per day) were measured.

Fruits treated with both PUT concentrations showed greater firmness, vitamin C, total anthocyanin and phenol content, TSS, and during storage retained their shelf life longer than the control. At all five measurements, the highest levels of phenol and total anthocyanin content and firmness were related to the treatment of PUT 2.0 mM with coating of 25% and 33% AVG and the lowest was related to control. Also, pre-harvest use of PUT significantly prevented the softening of the fruit during storage and kept the firmness fruit.  Softening contributes to quality loss in reducing the shelf life, but PAs treatment resulted in maintenance of flesh firmness during cold storage. Therefore, Put- and Spd-treated grape have higher firmness at harvest leading to much lower mechanical injury during harvest and handling process and providing better transportability. The purple skin color of table grape was related to the presence of anthocyanin compounds, from which the anthocyanin malvidin-3-glucoside has been found as major component. Although, total anthocyanins were reduced in control and treated fruits during cold storage, but pre-harvest foliar spraying of Put delayed total anthocyanins concentration after 36 days of storage and decreased the loss of these compounds at the end of experiment. PAs have been described as anti-senescence agents and a great number of researches have been focused on the role of exogenous PAs on fruit ripening. Also it has been reported that the ripening process and senescence of table grapes is correlated with the anthocyanin concentration and profile. However, the data on pre-harvest application of polyamine on different fruit species are scant. Khan et al., (2007) showed that pre storage application of Put would retard fruit softening in ‘Angelino’ plum during cold storage by suppressing ethylene biosynthesis. In mango, Malik and Singh (2005) reported that pre-harvest application of PAs improved fruit shelf life, increased ascorbic acid content and retarded fruit skin color changes compared to control

Pre-harvest foliar application of Put on grapevines maintained higher firmness at harvest and postharvest periods and also improved the fruit quality in terms of phenolics, ascorbic acid, anthocyanin and also controlling weight loss during cold storage. Overall, the results showed that pre-harvest use of 2.0 mM PUT and post-harvest immersion in 25.0% and 33.0% AVG improved the shelf life of the cultivar by 16 days compared to control.

Gerbera is one of the most important cut flowers in the world and belongs to the Asteraceae family. Due to its diverse and adaptable species for growth with a wide range of climatic conditions, this flower has become a profitable cut flower for growers. Polyamines in plant tissues act as a potent factor in preventing the production of ethylene. Polyamines and ethylene have antagonistic effects (anti-aging and aging effects), so that the balance of these two hormonal groups in plants is very important for plant tissues. The balance between the two opposing regulators leads to a delay or acceleration in the aging process. Mycorrhizal fungi can be useful in hydroponic greenhouse systems, which increase the amount of CO2 in greenhouses by increasing photosynthesis in plants, as well as CO2 emissions in the control environment, which both optimally manage the environment and increase the yield and quality of plant products. Due to the economic importance of cut flowers, it seems necessary to provide treatments (such as the use of putrescine and mycorrhiza) to increase the quality and longevity of this plant. This study was conducted in the research and production greenhouses of Urmia University and the research laboratory of the Department of Horticultural Sciences of the Faculty of Agriculture in 2019-2020. This study was performed as a factorial experiment in a completely randomized design with three replications, each replication consistedd of three pots and each pot contained a plant. The factors of this experiment were Mycorrhizal fungi inoculation (with and without inoculation) during the transplanting process to the culture medium near the roots, and putrescine at four concentrations of 0 (control), 1, 2, and 4 mM, were applied two weeks after transplantation, every 15 day-interval for three months. In order to investigate the effects of putrescine and mycorrhizal fungi on some morphological and physiological characteristics of plants, two weeks after the end of treatments, leaf sampling was performed to measure physiological characteristics. Effects of putrescine and mycorrhizal fungi were assayed in some morphological characteristics including leaf number, leaf length and leaf area, fresh and dry weight of leaves and some physiological parameters including chlorophyll index, chlorophyll content (a, b and total) and soluble sugar as well as vase life and petal’s anthocyanin during postharvest time. The SAS software version 9.1 was used to analyze the variance and compare the mean of the studied traits. Comparison of means was performed using the Tukey’s range test method at a probability level of 1 and 5%. Excel (2016) software was also used to draw the graph. According to the comparison of means, putrescine, along with mycorrhizal fungi, increased the number of leaves, leaf area, and the fresh and dry weight of the leaves as well as chlorophyll index, chlorophyll a, b and total and carotenoid content of leaves. In this study, inoculation with mycorrhiza reduced leaf length but increased leaf area resulted in that mycorrhiza could increase leaf blade because of increasing cytokinin in plant. Putrescine with mycorrhizal fungi, increased leaf growth, photosynthesis of plant and carbohydrates production. In the literatures, it is reported that, the vase life of cut flowers is a very important point in choosing them as great cut flowers. The results showed, putrescine and mycorrhiza had increased the vase life of gerbera flowers, therefore increased the quality of this plant. Putrescine and mycorrhiza also increased the amounts of anthocyanins in the petals, and by the sixth day, the highest levels of anthocyanins were observed in the petals. Probably, the reason for increasing the anthocyanins on the sixth day is the presence of carbohydrates stored in the flower, which due to the reduced respiration and carbohydrate consumption in this process. Based on the results of the present study, it can be concluded that putrescine, with mycorrhizae, improved growth characteristics as well as increasing the postharvest life and the quality of cut flowers of gerbera. It is also observed that among the different concentrations of putrescine, the concentration of 2 mM had the greatest effect on the growth and physiological parameters as well as vase life of gerbera.

In recent years, applying humic acid has been common in enhancing the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of crops. The use of biofertilizers instead of chemical fertilizers has an effective role in increasing the health of plants, animals, and humans, and reducing environmental pollution. Chemical fertilizers are gradually being replaced by biofertilizers. Strawberry is a fruit with high nutritional value. Choosing the right nutritional conditions such as fertilizers and suitable cultivation beds to achieve high quantitative and qualitative yield in this plant is inevitable. In recent years, the use of humic acid has been common in enhancing the vegetative and generative characteristics of crops. Humic acid is a rich source of potassium, phosphorus and nitrogen. The method of application of humic acid has an effective role in improving the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of plants. Combining some cultivation beds such as perlite, composts, and fertilizers including agricultural waste (such as rice bran and tea wastes) into soil cultivation beds have had an effective role for improving the quantity and quality of plants.

A pot experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of foliar application of humic acid and different cultivation beds on morphology, flowering and fruiting of two strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa) cultivars ‘Local’ and ‘Selva’ in Islamic Azad University, Rasht Unit, on 2016. Different concentrations of humic acid (0, 300, 600, and 1000 mg l−1) were applied as foliar application in two steps (late March containing three leaves and late April containing five leaves) on strawberries cultivated in different beds (usual soil and usual soil with rice bran, or perlite, or  tea wastes). The experiment was carried out as factorial based on a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with four replications. Some traits including plant height, root number, root length, leaf length, shoot number, shoot length, shoot diameter, leaf number, node number, flowering time, flower diameter, flower number, fruit number and fruit weight were measured.

Analysis of variance showed that the interaction effect of humic acid × cultivation bed ×cultivar on plant height, shoot length, shoot number, leaf number, root length, root number, flower diameter (p≤0.01), fruit weight, and fruit number (p≤0.05) was significant. The interaction effect of these three factors on shoot or stolon diameter, leaf length, flowering time and flower number was not significant. Results of mean comparison showed that the highest shoot or stolon number (14.82) were obtained in ‘Selva’ cultivar treated with 1000 mg l−1 humic acidcultivatedin usual soil with tea wastes. The highest fruit weight (35.45 g) and fruit number (15.41 per plant) were obtained in ‘Selva’ cultivar treated with 1000 mg l−1 humic acidcultivatedin usual soil with perlite. The maximum leaf number (16.03 per plant) was obtained in the treatment of 300 mg l−1 humic acid and the cultivation bed of usual soil and rice bran in ‘Local’ cultivar. Minimum fruit number (3.58) and fruit weight (8.23 g) were obtained in ‘Local’ cultivar cultivated in usual soil bed without humic acid. The highest number of root (19.56) was obtained in the treatment of 600 mg l−1 humic acid and the cultivation bed of usual soil with perlite in ‘Local’ cultivar. The highest amount of flower diameter (7.85 mm) was calculated in the treatment of 1000 mg l−1 humic acid and the cultivation bed of usual soil with tea wastes on ‘Selva’ cultivar. These results suggest that humic acid foliar application might be benefit to enhance fruit characteristics of strawberry. Totally, humic acid application increased growth and yield of strawberry. Since the most important parameters for increasing the quality of strawberry fruit is fruit characteristics, it is recommended to use 1000 mg l−1 of humic acid cultivated in the usual soil mixture with tea wastes. Strawberries are widely cultivated worldwide due to their high nutritional value. Chemical fertilizers have been used as a way to increase crop yields, but have led to problems such as nitrate accumulation, pot life, and poor quality and environmental pollution. Therefore, organic fertilizers have been used. Humic acid can improve quantitative and qualitative production by having properties such as providing more available essential elements and increasing plant resistance to various biological and non-biological stresses. A positive association has been reported between the use of humic acid and the increases in growth, yield and product quality in strawberries and other plants. Proper cultivation bed plays an important role in the optimal growth and development of plants. Salinity increases osmotic stress, ion toxicity, oxidative stress and food imbalance. The use of compost fertilizer and foliar application of humic acid increased the growth, yield and quality of strawberry fruit.

Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is a common vegetable that is widely cultivated and consumed worldwide in the Solanaceae family (global tomato production is estimated at approximately 182 million tons in 2017). Tomato, because of its elevated nutritional value, is the second most common vegetable commodity in the world after potatoes. As with other crops, the global production of tomatoes is threatened by certain biological stresses (such as pests, plant diseases and weeds) and non-biological stresses (such as salinity, drought, floods, cold and heat stress). Nowadays, the excessive use of chemical fertilizers in tomato production in order to increase yields, has resulted in environmental pollution and dangers on the health of consumers. The reaction of cultivated plants to these challenges is indicated by numerous morphological, physiological, biochemical and molecular changes, leading to a direct and indirect decrease in plant growth and productivity. Salinity as a non-biological stress can cause osmotic or ionic imbalance in plant cells. Salinity stress also limits growth and germination by affecting water and reducing water availability and affects crop production. Endophytes represent an eco-friendly option for the promotion of plant growth and for serving as sustainable resources of novel bioactive natural products. One of the alternative ways to restore normal plant growth under salinity stress may be to use plant growth to stimulate endophytes. Endophytes can play an important role in plant survival under salinity stress by reducing the adverse effects of sodium ion. Therefore, this work provides strong evidence that endophyte halophyte can be beneficial for tomato that help tolerate the plants stress. The main aim of this study was to investigate the role of endophytic bacteria (Exigubacterium aurantiacum), isolated from Salsola imbricate, in improving the growth of Solanum lycopersicum L. (8320) under salinity stress. The salinity tolerance potential of bacterial endophytes was investigated in vitro. The bacterial was cultured in Nutrient Agar with different concentrations of NaCl (1, 2 and 3 M) and its growth dynamics were investigated after 24 and 120 hours. To prepare the bacterial suspension for inoculation with tomato seeds, the bacteria were cultured on NB (Nutrient Broth) medium for 24 hours in an incubator at 28±1 °C at 130 rpm. The OD suspension was adjusted to a concentration of 1×108 ml. Tomato seeds (cultivar 8320) were washed with ethanol (70%) for 30 seconds and then sterilized with 0.5% sodium hypochlorite for 90 minutes and then completely distilled three times with distilled water. They were autoclaved and washed. For better contact of seeds with bacteria, 1% carboxymethylcellulose was used and then the seeds inoculated with bacterial treatments were placed on a shaker for six hours. Seeds inoculated with bacterial endophytes were planted in seedlings and then placed in pots containing autoclaved soil in the greenhouse of the Faculty of Agriculture, Hormoz University. The experiment was arranged in a factorial experiment based on randomized complete block design with three replications. Experimental treatments included five levels of salinity stress (0, 4, 6, 8 and 10 dS/m-1) and bacterial endophyte inoculation (E. aurantiacum). Analysis of variance of traits was performed using SAS software version 9.4 and the means were compared using LSD method with a probability level of p < /em> Analysis of variance showed that among treatments there is significant difference on growth parameters of tomato seedling (p < /em>  0.01), this indicate the positive impact of the bacterial endophyte on the growth parameters of tomato seedling is inoculated with the bacterial than the control plants. In this experiment, stem height, dry weight of stem, leaf and root, percentage of electrolyte leakage, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, carotenoid, proline and carbohydrate content were examined. The results of mean comparison showed that salinity stress significantly reduced stem height, stem dry weight, leaves and roots, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, carotenoids and increased electrolyte leakage; however, bacterial endophyte reduced the negative effects of salinity stress on tomatoes. Tomato seedling treated with endophytic bacteria showed higher levels of key osmolytes, total soluble carbohydrates and free proline compared to untreated plants under salinity stress. The results also showed that the use of endophytic bacteria increased the growth of tomatoes in saline soil and water, thereby it can be used as an effective tool for growing salinity-sensitive plants such as tomatoes in saline conditions.