مجله پژوهش های ادب عرفانی (گوهر گویا)
سال چهاردهم شماره 2 (پیاپی 45، پاییز و زمستان 1399)

Analyzing Sanai's thoughts about the biased contradictory and reprehensible view of Satan and his disobedience to prostrate demonstrated that Sanai has viewed this issue from the perspective of Abolhasan Ash'ari’s theological theory (the famous theologian died in 330 AH) about the creation and acquisition of servants’ deeds. Both the accepted and rejected aspects of Satan in the works of this great poet can be understood and justified by quoting this theory. The intellectual and theoretical support of Sanai’s biased view relies on the belief in the generalization of divine providence and will to all events in the world, including the actions and desires of the servants and the necessity of this belief, that is, the possibility and creation of deeds. In this theory, his reprehensible view can be also justified by referring to the subject of acquisition which considers servants as the autonomous and responsible acquisitors of deeds who deserve praise. The present descriptive-analytical study aims at investigating the contradictory view in two main works of Sanai, namely Divan and Hadiqah. According to the results of the present study, this contradiction in Sanai’s view  originates from the roots of deterministic thoughts especially from the viewpoint of Abolhasan Ash'ari regarding the topic of creation and acquisition of deeds. Meanwhile, Sanai has limited freedom of reasoning of Abolhasan Ash'ari's view and apparently has succeeded to resolve this contradiction utilizing the theory of intuition of unity in the components of existence and submission.

The collection of the precious heritage of mystical literature, despite the variety of themes and subjects, falls into the general category of interpretive texts, educational works, and biographies. Although these works have thematically followed their non-mystical examples, the style of Sufism in entering these categories has always been special. The present study seeks to identify a part of the collection of mystical memoirs entitled  Tabaqat Alsufia and to explain the genre position of these works. Investigating the historical course of ‘class writing’ and especially Tabaqat Alsufia and case evaluation of existing samples shows that the two works of Tabaqat Alsufia by Abu Abdul Rahman Solami Neyshabouri and Tabaqat Alsufia by Khajeh Abdullah Ansari can be considered as the most complete and best examples in the literary-mystical genre. Also, a brief comparison of  Tabaqat Alsufia with different genres of historiography and mystical memoirs and the study of the characteristics of superior examples show that although the aspect of recording events of  Tabaqat Alsufia is attributed to historiography, it is also attributed to the biography. Also, the biography feature links people to the autobiography, but the special structure of  Tabaqat Alsufia and the mission of classifying the mystical periods along with the various functions of this particular species, such as Sufi guidance and education, transmission of social and cultural values and beliefs of different periods, the expression of social and sectarian customs and traditions have been more important than the recording of events and biographies. Such features are so obvious and special that they introduce  Tabaqat Alsufia as an independent genre in the field of mystical literature.

One of the most challenging topics in mystical education is the need of the seeker for a teacher and its necessity in mystical behavior, but the great mystics for some reason have refused to provide scientific and argumentative discussion in this field. Despite the importance of the issue, the functions a teacher can have in training the seeker have not been sufficiently explained and analyzed. Among Muslim mystics, Jalaluddin Mohammad Rumi, by accepting the principle of master-centeredness in conduct, has given a mystical explanation of the dimensions of such issue. In the present study, an attempt has been made to extract more than sixty verses related to the issue from different chapters of Masnavi to describe Rumi’s view on the necessity of a teacher in the mystical journey in the cognitive and behavioral dimensions by the descriptive-analytical method and by analyzing the content of verses. Based on the findings of this study, four functions of the teacher in the cognitive dimension, namely, knowing the path and destination, recognizing obstacles, diagnosing detective and intuitive events, and recognizing the difference in seekers’ structure were identified. Also, five functions in the behavioral field, namely, the care for promotion to higher levels, speeding up and facilitating the journey, the effect of the teacher’s inner guardianship, removing obstacles, and eliminating possible harms due to the absence of a teacher were categorized. Based on the results of this study, it is impossible to achieve all such factors according to Rumi without the guidance and support of a teacher.

Monajatname of Khajeh Abdullah Ansari is one of the most important mystical texts in which Khajeh speaks to the Creator using a delicate language and melodic prose. The conversations are replete with religious and mystical experiences. Tending to share with the interlocutors a different type of Human-God relationship, the utterances that are close to the mystical level extend beyond the common beliefs and general doctrines of a Muslim. This shows Khaje's devotion to Kharghani. It also indicates the attraction of mystical discourse alongside the jurisprudential and theological discourses. The authors of the present study try to categorize the utterances and their relationship with God into three discourse fields: romantic, treacherous, and shrewd. The method of the study is critical discourse analysis by which the structures of the utterances are evaluated and explained in three different levels: description, interpretation, and illustration. The results of this study show that, from a discourse point of view, the relationship between humans and God in Monajatname encompasses a vast scope of fear and asceticism, love, and shrewdness supporting various discourse aspects and truth regimes to which these conversations belong.

Many of Hafez’s poems have complex themes that, in addition to knowing literary points, they need to be carefully looked at in the finer points of the poetry of the past. In this regard, two verses of Hafez's lyric poems still do not have a proper description due to the inaccuracy in the mentioned principles. The word ‘tears’, as one of the main elements of the verse, has been put forward in both verses with thematization and illustration, the meaning of which has not been properly understood and presented due to the inaccuracy of the commentators. The first verse is: ‘O Admonisher! Make little talk; come back (and be not my prohibitor of love’s path). For, the man of my eye/ Plucked, from off my head, and, in thanks (for the acquisition of love), consumed’. The Persian word ‘madjara’ in this verse means tears and a leader. The second verse does not have the controversy of the first verse. Apparently, the reason for this lack of attention is the lack of understanding of a subtle point that Hafez has made, and the commentators have negligibly described it. The verse is: You took sleep from the eyes of your lovers/ but you cursed them with the rejection of their imagination, and cast their sins into their tears. In this verse, the Persian phrase ‘Shabrovane kheile khab’ (bandits sleep) refers to tears and cries the lover sends to the beloved due to his imagination. The reason for the problems of the commentators in both of the mentioned verses, in addition to not realizing Hafez’s subtlety in the themes, could also be the negligence of the grammatical points.

In his critique of modern semiotics, Michael Riffaterre seeks to achieve a new reading of poetry by explaining the nature and function of poetic language in literary texts and by relying on the linguistic ability of the readers. The allegory of ‘the parrot and the merchant’ of Masnavi is a suitable context for adapting to the processes of the mentioned theory due to its special capacity and dialectical structure. The present study investigates in a descriptive-analytical way the origin of ‘recommending voluntary death with the help of getting rid of the pests of fame’ in the mentioned allegory and how it is developed through the processes proposed by Rifater’s theory. By examining these components, it is possible to understand that in the process of ‘accumulation’, in the second chain, the concept of ‘death’ which is the main building block of the subject was used to make the story more real. In descriptive systems, the macro-system ‘parrot’ is at the top of two other micro-systems due to having more constellations, which confirms that the anecdote revolves around the soul and related issues. In the process of ‘expansion’, due to the constant attention to typology and interest in the psychology of characters, by adding free themes and unnecessary actions, the concepts of annihilation and survival have become more believable.

The confluence of the deep artistic language of the Holy Quran, mind creativity, and the Sufism language in the 172nd verse of A’araf lead to the Alast era. Also, interpretive and verbal challenges of interpreters need an analytical viewpoint to enlighten the role of Sufism mind and language in relation with the aforementioned verse, the factors caused such an interpretation, and investigating  whether the interpretation in the Sufism language is in line with the truth or is just related to mind/language creativity and activity in reading the Holy Quran. In this regard, the purpose of the present study was to investigate how the Sufism language, with its poetic capability and hermeneutic ability, can turn Quranic facts into metonymies, how it can be active in encountering such a source, and why the opposite is true in the interpretive domain. The study was conducted using the descriptive-analytical method based on library/document studies. The findings showed that the interpretation of the Alast verse in the Sufism language is the result of the Sufi’s active mind and resourceful language and has nothing to do with the real meaning of that verse. Indeed, it is even in contrast with the real meaning in which the active mind of the Sufi has resulted in its own desirable meanings from the words ‘Zorrayatahom’ and ‘Alast’, and made the ‘Zor world’ and ‘Alast era’ metaphorically. Therefore, these metaphoric expressions prepared the ground for interpretations and led this verse beyond the symbolic allegory level. In the interpretation domain, interpreters were forced to confirm a stream named ‘Zor world’ and ‘Alast era’ or at least accepted it as a kind of allegory, without considering the conceptual relations in the verse 172 with its previous and next verses and neglecting the precedence of narrativity to the Holy Quran referral and their internal relations.

Ibn Arabi, in a different approach from the general commentators, denies the immortality of the torment of the Hereafter and considers it finite. The present study seeks to address what mechanisms and discourse techniques he used in his reading of the verses of the Holy Qur'an to make his hypothesis believable and compatible with the verses as well as  examining his method and the validity of his citations based on discourse critique. The study was done using a descriptive-analytical method and a discourse approach. The results of the study showed that Ibn Arabi, using theological strategies and discourse techniques in his different readings of verses with new content and language formulations of the teachings related to the immortality of torment in the Holy Qur'an, seeks to promote the discourse of ‘religious tolerance’ and to weaken the discourse of ‘intensification of religious discipline’. The most important tricks of Ibn Arabi in his reading of Quranic verses in accordance with this discourse system are: reducing and blocking the meaning of concepts and propositions, reproducing new meanings for them, highlighting the signs and consistent and marginal propositions incompatible with the author’s point of view, using monologues, inversing concepts and teachings, and naturalizing the author’s claims. It was also found that Ibn Arabi's skillful use of such tricks has led to the deconstruction of concepts and signs, the distortion of teachings, and the breaking of the bond between propositions and fragmentary discourses in a rival discourse so that he can read his preferred reading.

The spread of the Persian language and literature among non-Persian speakers depended on different factors in each period and area. One such example is the spread of the Pandnameh among Bosnian people. The Pandnameh, a book misattributed to Attar, enjoyed high esteem in Bosnia for about four centuries. It was included in the official educational system, followers of various Sufi orders read and learned it, and people of different social backgrounds were interested in it. The main question of this paper is why the Pandnameh – the book that does not belong among the best works of Persian literature – was for a long time popular in Bosnian cultural and educational context along with the greatest works of Persian literature such as the Masnavi, Golestan and Hafez's Divan. By examining all forms of its presence in the Balkans, particularly in Bosnia, the authors conclude that various factors contributed to the spread of the Pandnameh in Bosnia. Those factors include the simple language of expression, lack of literary embellishments, a good reputation among Ottoman poets, as well as the book’s significant place in the Ottoman educational system and importance of Sufism in the Ottoman culture generally.

The mysticism language is vague and alien with the standard language and the mind of the reader. This alienation is the result of a process in which the speaker transforms the language and concepts into mystical levels and this is itself a means of monopolizing these concepts to stay hidden from people's eyes. In other words, the mystic language is transformed and obscures the familiar language that is accessible to everyone, and it can be said that mysticism requires defamiliarization. That is why some simple concepts for the reader become complex and vague. With the emergence of new theories, including formalism that emphasizes the text itself as a sufficient factor, it is possible to gain a better understanding of the text itself and its content through careful consideration of the text and its structure. The present analytical study seeks to investigate some of the factors that led to  defamiliarization in Ibn al-Farez's Mimmyyeh and its purpose is to better understand the structure and consequently the content of this ode. The results of the study show that the poet has taken some of the factors in the structure of the ode intentionally. By careful analysis, it is possible to  find the hidden layers, which are guides to its content, and see the familiarization efficiency in the formalistic reading of mystical works that are mostly used to obscure mystical concepts. In fact, defamiliarization is a tool of ambiguity of simple mystical concepts.

The narration of ‘the King and the Maid’ as the first anecdote of Rumi's Masnavi after the section of Ney Name is one of the most serious stories of this poem and the most basic ideas of the poet are included in it. The high importance of this anecdote has caused many Masnavi scholars to interpret the meanings and explain its symbols. This issue leads to the emergence of multiple and often conflicting views. A group of commentators have considered the story of ‘the king and the maid’ as a symbolic story focusing on its symbols while another group, though emphasizing the importance of the anecdote, considered this kind of symbolism inappropriate to Rumi's taste and ingenuity. Having a correct judgment about such different views requires the use of framed methods of reading literary and artistic texts.  Using Roland Barthes's method, thus, can be helpful. While distinguishing between a ‘readable text’ and ‘written text’, Barthes considered a written text to be a system of different codes that, in conjunction with each other, give rise to multiple meanings. Accordingly, he suggests  analyzing the meaning in the text using the five hermeneutic, action, semantic, symbolic, and cultural codes. The purpose of the present study is to investigate the main discourses reinforced by different semantic levels of the text using a descriptive-analytical method. In this way, a scientific position was reached on resolving conflicts between commentators over the meaning of the symbols and the basic concepts of this story. The results of the study of text cryptography show that the three discourses of ‘sheikh, seeker’, ‘top side, bottom side’ and ‘trust, pride’ are the main discourses of the text and all cryptographies and semantic levels reinforce these discourses. In the context of the meaning of the symbols of the story, the focus on the main dualities of the text shows that this story symbolically represents the connection between the dimensions of human existence. According to Ibn Sina's views on how the soul belongs to the earthly body, the symbols of the anecdote can be interpreted as follows: the king is the symbol of the soul, the maid is the symbol of the body, and the goldsmith is the symbol of the world.

The path of guidance and how to reach God has been one of the most controversial issues in religion. Among these is the famous phrase ‘the ways to God are as many as the number of human beings’ leading to the increased  scope of controversy as it reinforces the flaws of religious pluralism and pluralism. Hence, it has been the subject of much discussion. Some interpreted the word ‘ways’ with the assumption that it is a prophetic hadith and others with the assumption that it is quoted from great mystics. What has been studied in this research is the study of the above phrase from a historical and narrative perspective. The questions posed in this study are: 1) Since when has this phrase entered mystical and interpretive texts?; 2) Is it really a prophetic hadith? In addition, the meaning of ‘ways’ has been studied from the lexical and idiomatic dimensions based on the interpretations of mystics. The findings of the present descriptive-analytical study showed that the same phrase did not appear in Islamic texts before the seventh and eighth centuries AH although traces of similar sentences can be seen in the ancient books of Sufism. It is also wrong to consider it as a prophetic hadith because it has not been mentioned in authentic books. The meanings and interpretations of scholars and mystics of the word ‘ways’ can be placed under the following titles: diversity of religions, proofs of God's existence, ways of knowledge, mystical authorities, different ways of conduct, types of faith, and divine names.