مجله فلسفه علم
سال یازدهم شماره 1 (پیاپی 21، بهار و تابستان 1400)

The main background of this research is the study of Descartes' method in our knowledge to the sensible world and its relation to the ideal theme of axiomatic knowledge. I do not accept the objection that Descartes deviated from the axiomatic method in the knowledge of the material world, and therefore I have argued that he continued to axiomatic method by developing the rules of inference and breaking the monopoly of syllogism in his Tree of knowledge. One of the most important rules of non-deductive inference developed in his work is the method of inference to the best explanation (I.B.E). Through documentary analysis, I have shown that in addition to the basic formulation of the inference to best explanation (I.B.E), its extensive formulation can be clearly traced both in Preliminary design such as Discourse on Method and in the empirical sections of the principles of philosophy. Studying this development of inferential rules in Descartes's work not only illuminates some aspects of his important and deep idea of replacing the method with logic, but also provides a model for combining empirical knowledge with the axiomatic method. This model inspires knowledge and rational encounter with creative and constantly changing experimental and human events, and based on it, a window can be opened to get out of epistemic anarchy and even value anarchy in such areas.

The systemic perspective does not only apply to living organisms, but also a wide range of cultural systems such as language and social behavior in human communities. A vast volume of interdisciplinary researches was carried out in the field of social sciences and cultural studies with the purpose of using the behavioral patterns of the living systems in order to study the development patterns of the cultural elements. These studies indicated that the complex systems share similar patterns and behaviors at the macro-level. With regard to these researches, the present qualitative study with systemic perspective, analyzes the similarities and differences between the reproduction patterns at a biological level and the reproduction and publication of meaning/information elements at the cultural level. Afterward, the results were generalized to the sign system - concentrating the artistic signs and symbols- in both semantic and morphological dimensions. The present study revealed that the properties of two reproduction strategies in nature, i.e. r-selection and k-selection, could be generalized, at the macro-level, to the reproduction of artistic signs and symbols at a cultural level, despite the obvious differences in the details. Taking into account these similarities in reproduction patterns, with an interdisciplinary perspective and different from other popular analyses, could lead to a different understanding of the reasons for some developments in the amount of reproduction and development of sign systems in various communities.

AbstractIn this article, we use Thagard's conceptual tree theory to explain the increase in the number of people with "Autism Spectrum Disorders." At first glance, the explanation for the increase in the number of cases of this disorder may be due to the actual increase in the number of people, for reasons that have not yet been identified. Or that medical professionals have developed more accurate tools for identification and screening. But this initial explanation for the increase in the number of people can also have complementary explanations, such as medicalization and conceptual change. In this article, we explain the conceptual change; In such a way that the increase in the number of cases is due to changes in the concept of this disorder, which results in the inclusion of new people who were not previously included in this spectrum. It is also cited as an alternative explanation for Paul Thagard's theory of the tree of conceptual change, in which he researched the conceptual hierarchical change of tuberculosis And by applying his theory, we show that the increase in the number of cases of autism spectrum disorders can be due to a change in the concept of autism, in addition to the possibility of an increase in the number of people and more accurate medical devices..

. Astronomers in later periods of Islamic astronomy were more influenced by Avicenna’s natural philosophy, So they used the basics of natural philosophy in astronomical theories. This prompted them to try to replace the Equant model proposed by Ptolemy with new models. Muslim astronomers and philosophers were interested in considering the spheres as material bodies and sought the cause of phenomena in philosophical discussions. But Ptolemy used his models only in explaining the universe in his book, Almagest. And his aim was not to find the cause of the motion of the planets and spheres. Astronomers' philosophical beliefs about the motion of the spheres can be seen in other topics, such as the material of the spheres, their simplicity, and the type of motion they all have. These views are due to their interest in finding the cause of the planets' motion. Ali Qushji lived in the last years of the astronomical period in Islamic civilization. He wanted to save the phenomena instead of finding the reasons for what happened. Because he was distrustful of astronomical theories. This article will address Ghoshchi's astronomical views of cosmology.

By adding detailed scientific data together, more general images can be drawn. These more general images are themselves fallible models that can, of course, better represent a picture of the future than blind conjectures. In the present article, a series of empirical findings are put together to defend the claim that "the Covid-19 pandemic, by speed up the changes that are taking place in the human microbiome (= the collection of all microbes that take part in symbiosis with human), has intense effects on human physical and mental health, emotions and cognition, and social relationships." This is the main argument of the article in defending this claim. The composition of the microbiome affects physical and mental health, emotions and cognition, and human social relationships, and therefore a change in the microbiome leads to a change in these aspects. The microbiome has changed over the course of human evolution, and this trend has accelerated in the last two centuries. The Covid-19 pandemic could bring about more changes in the human microbiome. In support of the premise, some have been selected and presented from the mass of data.

About fifty years ago Ernst Mayr, a German biologist, and philosopher of science reminded other philosophers of science of the significance of biology in philosophical studies. By the second half of the nineteenth century, the orthodox philosophy of science was still largely leaned toward physics among other empirical branches of science. It took some decades for philosophers of science to gradually change their focus to biology, but the course of action still needs development. This paper highlights some critical problems that biological case studies may pose against philosophers’ understanding of the language of science. It will be seen that at least for some biological case studies, scientific theory alone cannot determine meaning and reference. Contrary to the orthodox philosophy of science, causal and descriptive components are also insufficient to do the task. This paper reveals some reasons behind these biological complications but ultimately claims that above everything this complication stems from the historicity of the reference of biological concepts.

The prevalence of epidemics and how to deal with them is very important in understanding the changes of social history. Islamic societies in the Eastern Mediterranean have a lot in common features geographically, historically and culturally. One of the difficulties of Islamic societies in the Eastern Mediterranean since the beginning of the rise of Islam and during the Muslim conquests and then throughout the Umayyad period was the unexpected outbreak of the plagues and the heavy casualties and the consequences that resulted from them. The results of this study show that the outbreak of the plague known as the Justinian plague in the late antiquity in the two empires of Rome and Iran and its transfer to the Islamic period, faced new problems for Muslims in the conquered lands and had far-reaching consequences for the developments of the first centuries of Islam. In this study by descriptive-analytical method the continuous prevalence of plague in a part of the history and geography of the Islamic world and its reflection in the historiography and intellectual and political issues of Muslims has been investigated.

Theoretical frameworks in Islamic era have an important role in Middle Ages historiographical approaches toward analytical notions such as ‘experience’, ‘Observation’ and ‘theory’. Some historiographers believe that scientific theory in Middle Ages root in Aristotle philosophy of nature or Islamic texts. Other ones say the most of experiments mentioned in Middle Age’s science are the copy that narrated from Aristotle or Muslims that didn’t observed by writer directly. Grants Idea of Empiricism without Observation is an important and influential one that claims observation we confronted in middle ages texts means nothing than Scientific imagination. He generalized the idea to all discipline of knowledge arise in middle age and presented some cases in confirming his presentism claim. Among this, the alchemy is a notable field that challenges these approaches. In this letter, showed that a controversial case has multiple natures in Islamic alchemy names talismatic experimentalism, face differently with grants idea and challenge it.

The spread of Covid 19 disease in early 2020, which quickly became a global epidemic, drastically changed human relationships. The use of quarantine technique to prevent the spread of the disease has sparked much controversy in the areas of public health and social control. It is necessary to be aware of these widespread changes and the resulting conflicts, to know the history of the epidemic and its effects in the field of public health and its consequences in changing the political pattern and social control. In this article, we first try to briefly describe the evolution of the concept of pandemics from Greece to the Middle Ages, and show that the dominant method of controlling pandemics was segregation. Then we show how in the fourteenth century the quarantine technique was invented to control epidemics. The invention of this technique was the beginning of the emergence of new knowledge such as statistics and social control. Finally, in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, public health became a new object. In fact, urban medicine in the eighteenth century was the continuation and development of the medical-political institution of quarantine in the late Middle Ages, which included the study of places that spread the phenomena of epidemics. In other words, the public health program was introduced as a health regime for the population that required authoritarian medical interventions and controls. .

The unpreparedness to deal with the Corona pandemic and the inadequacy of interventions and measures to control that world has created a critical situation. In this article based on biopolitical analytics, I want to show why we stand at this point and that unpreparedness and inadequacy have rooted in the structure of the epidemic (objects, sciences, and institutions). In this analysis, I will focus on the objects, sciences and institutions related to the structure of the epidemic and scrutinize how the structure of the epidemic has caused invisibility of objects such as the city, citizenship and society, which has led to the hiddenness of the related sciences and institutions. Medicalization of the health and the priority of epidemiology have been the result of this historical process. It seems that the revival of urban medicine and serious attention to health humanities as a potential link between biomedical sciences, politics and society can open up new horizons.

In modern medicine, paraclinical findings carry out a major role in the process of diagnosis and treatment and physician decisions are largely made with the help of these findings. The expansion of these technologies has diminished the role of physician-patient dialogue, which is necessary for clinical practice. However, medicine is fundamentally a hermeneutical process that requires a common understanding between the physician and patient, which takes place in the context of clinical encounter, and therefore para-clinical findings will in no way replace the conversation with the patient; therefore, the importance of paying attention to hermeneutics in medicine is understandable. This article, as well as presenting an explanation of Gadamer's hermeneutics, analyses the process of understanding from Gadamer's point of view and argues that the hermeneutical reading of medicine, as Gadamer intends, requires attention to the Aristotelian concept of phronesis. Since empathy is necessary to achieve a common understanding, or, in Gadamer's words, a “fusion of horizons of understanding”, this article goes on to discuss empathy and introduce some of common definitions of empathy in medicine. Finally, by criticizing the common approaches to empathy, presents a phenomenological understanding of empathy by employing Lou Agosta's interpretations, and considers empathy not only as a tool to increase patient satisfaction with the physician, but also by emphasizing on conceptual fusion of hermeneutics and empathy, considers empathy as a critical and basic condition for achieving common understanding in the clinical dialogue process.

Methodological Naturalism is one of the basic assumptions of Natural Sciences. many believe that this assumption has no logical relation with ontological naturalism that denies the existence of any supernatural entity-including God. in this paper, first, the relation between methodological naturalism and ontological naturalism has been elucidated and for that, the role that methodological naturalism plays with Ockham's Razor for supporting ontological naturalism has been explained. then, after analyzing methodological naturalism, would be clear that not only this assumption has anti-theological direction, but, in respect of scientific and philosophical scrutiny, it is under question, too, and should not accept a priori. this presumption would imply the impossibility of arguing for Divine action and in the next step can raising the atheism. thus, because of science pursues the truth, it must not foreclose the possibility of assessing the other theories about the world that are not only using materialistic conceptions of the world.

The theory of quaternary elements along with the natural system is one of the cornerstones of Greek philosophy, especially from Aristotle. With the translation and transmission of Greek sciences, this theory came to the Islamic world and formed the theoretical basis for most of the Islamic sciences. Of these, Islamic science has been widely used in the field of Islamic sciences. In this paper, we try to show the effect of this theory in two parts: scientific and technological. The part that can be considered as the development of Aristotelian naturalism based on the natural system, and the part that is in the field of technology and technology, and the natural system has an inspirational role for it.