فهرست مطالب

زبان پژوهی - پیاپی 39 (تابستان 1400)

نشریه زبان پژوهی
پیاپی 39 (تابستان 1400)

  • تاریخ انتشار: 1400/04/22
  • تعداد عناوین: 12
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  • حوریه احدی* صفحات 9-32

    خواندن، بی گمان یکی از باارزش ترین مهارت های برجسته بشر است. برخی معتقدند توانایی واژگانی و دستوری، نقش مهمی در توانایی خواندن کودکان دارد. با توجه به متفاوت بودن زبان ها و شیوه های نگارشی آن ها، لازم است پژوهشی در پیوند با کودکان فارسی زبان نیز انجام شود. بنابراین هدف پژوهش حاضر، بررسی ارتباط مهارت خواندن انواع واژه ها و درک متن با توانایی دستوری و واژگانی کودکان نارساخوان و طبیعی است. برای انجام این پژوهش میدانی، 16 دانش آموز نارساخوان و 32 کودک همتای سنی انتخاب شدند. پس از اجرای آزمون های خواندن و درک نحو، بیان دستوری و درک و بیان واژگان، یافته های آن ثبت گردیده و با نرم‏افزار اس.پی.اس.اس تحلیل شد. بر مبنای یافته های پژوهش حاضر در همه مهارت های خواندن و مهارت های واژگانی و نحوی، تفاوت معناداری میان دو گروه کودکان عادی و نارساخوان وجود دارد. همچنین، یافته ها نشان می دهد در هیچ یک از گروه ها میان مهارت های خواندن با درک ساخت های نحوی و بیان ساخت های دستوری همبستگی معناداری وجود ندارد. بررسی همبستگی میان مهارت خواندن و توانایی واژگانی نیز نشان داد در گروه نارساخوان، خرده آزمون واژه های تصویری با سرعت و دقت خواندن، خرده آزمون واژه های ربطی با سرعت خواندن و خرده آزمون واژه های شفاهی با دقت خواندن و درک متن، همبستگی مثبت و معناداری دارد. افزون بر این، همبستگی معناداری میان خواندن واژه های بی قاعده و واژه های تصویری و واژه های شفاهی وجود دارد اما میان خواندن ناواژه ها و واژه های تصویری، ربطی و شفاهی همبستگی معناداری وجود ندارد. بنابراین تقویت توانایی واژگانی کودکان نارساخوان علاوه بر بالا بردن مهارت هایی همچون سرعت و دقت خواندن، برای خواندن واژه ها به ویژه واژه های بی قاعده ضروری است.

    کلیدواژگان: نارساخوانی، کودکان فارسی زبان، خواندن، نحو، واژگان
  • جلیل فتحی*، مهران صمدی، سعید نورزاده، آرش سحرخیز عربانی صفحات 33-55

    در فرایند آموزش زبان در دوره جدید، آموزگاران به عنوان بخش اصلی و مهم نظام های آموزشی قلمداد شده اند و از نقش بسیار بااهمیتی برخوردارند. زیرا آن ها مسئولیت پیش برد آموزش را بر عهده دارند. لازم به گفتن است که آموزگاران نقش تاثیرگذاری در برنامه ریزی و ارایه یک برنامه آموزشی کارا و معتبر نیز دارند. در زمینه های گوناگون آموزشی، به طور گسترده به نقش بااهمیت متغیرهای مرتبط با آموزگاران، در تاثیرگذاری بر عملکرد آن ها و پیامدهای یادگیری دانش آموزان گواهی شده است. با این وجود، پژوهش های تا اندازه محدودی در پیوند با متغیرهای معلمان در زمینه آموزش زبان انگلیسی به عنوان یک زبان خارجی انجام گرفته است. به منظور از بین بردن این کمبود، پژوهش حاضر با هدف مطالعه نقش خودانگاره و خودکارآمدی در پیش بینی فرسودگی شغلی آموزگاران زبان انگلیسی ایرانی انجام گردید. به این منظور، سه پرسش نامه اعتبارسنجی شده برای اندازه گیری این متغیرها در میان 184 معلم به عنوان شرکت کننده به کار گرفته شد. این شرکت کننده ها شامل آموزگاران مرد و زن با میزان تحصیلات گوناگون دانشگاهی بودند. همچنین برای تحلیل داده ها از رویکرد مدل معادلات ساختاری برای بررسی مدل ساختاری مفروض بهره گرفته شد. یافته های به دست آمده نشان داد که خودانگاره معلم 5/14 درصد واریانس، و خودکارآمدی معلم 6/22 درصد واریانس فرسودگی شغلی را تبیین می کند. همچنین یافته ها بیان گر این بود که با وجود تاثیر یکتای هر دو متغیر بر فرسودگی شغلی، خودکارآمدی معلمان پیش بینی کننده قوی تری برای فرسودگی شغلی آن ها بود. در پایان، دستاوردها و پیامدهای یافته ها مورد بحث قرار گرفت.

    کلیدواژگان: خودانگاره معلم، خودکارآمدی معلم، معلمان زبان انگلیسی، فرسودگی شغلی، مدل معادلات ساختاری
  • سعیدرضا یوسفی، مهین ناز میردهقان*، تینا بوگل صفحات 57-89

    هدف از پژوهش حاضر، بررسی تاثیر «تاکید» و تعیین جایگاه «شناسه های متممی واژهبستی» در زبان وفسی، بر مبنای دستور واژی-نقشی است. عوامل گوناگونی در پیدایش و تعیین جایگاه واژه بست ها نقش دارند که به گونه های «عوامل نحوی»، «فرایندهای واجی/نوایی»، «ترکیبی از فرایندهای نحوی و واجی/نوایی»، و «عوامل معنایی/کاربردشناختی» گروه بندی شده اند. در پژوهش های پیشین، شناسه های متممی وفسی فقط بر مبنای عوامل «نحوی»، به دو دسته «وندی» و «واژهبستی» گروه بندی شده اند (Stilo, 2010 Stilo, 2004a; Stilo, 2004b;) که این نوع دسته بندی در پژوهش حاضر، به چالش کشیده شده است. یافته های پژوهش حاضر، با تمرکز بر عوامل «نحوی-نوایی» در دستور واژی-نقشی، نمایان گر آن است که واژهبستهای متممی در وفسی دارای جفت «وندی» نیستند؛ بلکه تمامی آن ها صورتهای واژهبستی بوده و بر مبنای «محدودیتهای نوایی» قابل تبیین هستند. تحلیل پیکره وفسی در پژوهش حاضر، نشان دهنده آن است که در صورت کاهیده شدن پیشبست متممی از جنبه نوایی و فقدان میزبان مناسب برای آن، قلب نوایی سبب تغییر جایگاه آن برای پیوستن به یک میزبان مناسب در این زبان خواهد شد. بر این اساس، «صورتهای وندی» نیز در دسته بندی استیلو (همان)، در واقع «واژهبست»هایی هستند که مجبور به تحمل «تاکید» شده و صورت کامل به خود گرفته اند. تبیین یافته های مورد اشاره همراه با تحلیل صوری شناسه های متممی وفسی در سطح رابط نحو-نوا در دستور واژی-نقشی به صورت گسترده همراه با نمونه های زبانی در مقاله حاضر آورده شده است.

    کلیدواژگان: دستور واژی-نقشی، رابط نحو-نوا، دستور وفسی، شناسه های وفسی، واژهبستهای وفسی
  • علی محمد محمدی*، رحیم دهقان صفحات 91-116

    نقش های منظورشناختی قدرتمند و گوناگون گفتمان نماها، معنای واژگانی آنها را در گفتمان بی اعتبار می کند. نتیجه این فرایند، حساسیت گسترده این عناصر گفتمانی در پیوند با متغیرهای بافتی است. نقش ها و راهبردهای دقیق گفتمان نماها فقط در چارچوب هدف های ارتباطی خلاق، آشکار می گردد. بنابراین، به باور پژوهشگران، بررسی نقش گرایانه آنها در بافت اجتماعی، کاربردی ترین روش مطالعه آن هاست. مبانی معرفت شناختی این پژوهش توصیفی، کیفی و اکتشافی مشتمل بر تحلیل دیدگاه های پژوهشگران به نام و تجزیه و تحلیل منظورشناسانه پیکره خلاق و پیچیده متون نقد ترجمه است. این پژوهش با بهره گیری از الگوهای گفتمان شناختی فریزر (Fraser, 2006) و برینتن (Brinton, 1996) به تجزیه و تحلیل طیف های گوناگون نقشی گفتمان نماها در متن های نقد ترجمه، طی سه دهه و بر پایه نمونه برداری تصادفی خوشه ای پرداخته است. در این پژوهش، الگوی طیف نقشی شش وجهی مدیریت گفتمان در حوزه نقد ترجمه کشف گردید که پیش تر در کتاب های دستور و فرهنگ لغت ها بحث نشده و از دستاورد های این مقاله هستند. یافته کاربردی پژوهش حاضر این است که معنای گزاره ای گفتمان نماها در نتیجه فرایند کاربردی شدگی به شدت تغییر می یابد؛ دارای نقش ها و رفتارهای منظورشناختی می گردد؛ و سرانجام طیف نقشی چندگانه تعاملی گفتمان نماها را به وجود می آورد. این طیف نقشی، تحت تاثیر استنباط های پیچیده و خلاق قرار گرفته و همیشه در حال دگرگونی، تحول و گسترش است. در پایان، کاربردهای گوناگونی نیز تحلیل و پیشنهاد گردید.

    کلیدواژگان: طیف های نقشی، گفتمان نماها، نقد ترجمه، کاربردی شدگی
  • صالحه غضنفری مقدم*، محمدجعفر یاحقی، رضا پیش قدم، شیما ابراهیمی صفحات 117-145

    اهمیت آموزش زبان، زمینه ساز پژوهش های گوناگونی بوده است و در این زمینه، رویکردهایی پیشنهاد شده است از جمله کاربست ادبیات در آموزش زبان. بیشتر این پژوهش ها، در پیوند با درن مایه فرهنگی و بهره گیری مستقیم از متن های ادبی یا بازنویسی آن بوده اند؛ اما آن چه هدف این جستار است الگوپذیری از چهارچوب زبانی این متون، برای تولید محتوای آموزشی است. اینکه کدام متن ادبی الگوی مناسبی برای آموزش زبان ارایه می کند؛ و چه ویژگی دارد که فرایند یادگیری را آسان می کند، مسئله این پژوهش است. اصالت متن و داشتن زبان قابل فهم، از نخستین ویژگی هایی است که پژوهشگران این حوزه برای یک متن آموزشی بر شمرده اند. بر این مبنا، شاهنامه فردوسی به عنوان یک متن گهربار و ارزشمند که نقشی موثر در پاسداری از زبان فارسی داشته و در مقایسه با دیگر متن ها پیشگام بوده و زبانی زنده دارد، مرجع این پژوهش قرار گرفت. به نظر می رسد بررسی روابط واژگانی شاهنامه، بتواند الگوی مناسبی در تدوین محتوا وآموزش زبان فارسی به دست دهد. بررسی توصیفی- تحلیلی روابط واژگانی در نمونه آماری  نشان داد نزدیک به 40% واژگان دارای پیوندهای دوتایی اند که نیمی از آن ها، خارج از تعریف هم آیندها قرار می گیرند، از این رو، پاره گفته «دوگانه های واژگانی» پیشنهاد می شود. این روابط واژگانی، به صورت ناخودآگاه، با فعال کردن دانش پیشین واژگانی و دایره المعارفی، مخاطب را در درک متن یاری می نماید. یافته های آموزش زبان، بر پایه دوگانه های واژگانی و به کارگیری آن در یادگیری واژه و درک مطلب نیز نشان داد تفاوت معناداری مابین عملکرد دو گروه آزمایش و کنترل وجود دارد. همچنین این یافته ها تایید می کند کاربست دوگانه های واژگانی در افزایش میزان یادگیری زبان آموزان موثر است

    کلیدواژگان: دوگانه های واژگانی، شاهنامه فردوسی، آموزش زبان فارسی
  • غلامرضا مدادیان* صفحات 147-183

    در این مقاله، پس از بررسی اجمالی دیدگاه های پژوهشگران در پیوند با مقوله «ذهنیت» - و مفهوم مقابل آن عینیت- در میان مفاهیم وجهی، یک الگوی عملیاتی تلفیقی برای ارزیابی «عینیت»، «ذهنیت» و «بیناذهنیت» پیشنهاد شد. در این الگو، بر پایه تمایز هالیدی (Halliday, 1970) میان نقش اندیشگانی و بینافردی مفاهیم وجهی و تمایز نویتس (Nuyts, 2006) مابین مقوله های وجهی نگرشی و غیر نگرشی، وجهیت پویا و منطقی، به سبب داشتن نقشی اندیشگانی و همچنین غیر نگرشی بودن همواره عینی انگاشته می شود. در مقابل، مفاهیم وجهی معرفتی و تکلیفی، به سبب بینافردی و نگرشی بودن -با در نظرگرفتن عوامل بافتی- ذهنی و یا به درجات، بیناذهنی دسته بندی می شوند. همچنین،آن چه ذهنیت یا درجه بیناذهنیت یک مفهوم وجهی معرفتی یا تکلیفی را تعیین می کند، میزان مشترک بودن آن مفهوم و منبع معرفتی یا تکلیفی آن در میان افراد است. افزون بر این، ذهنیت یا میزان بیناذهنیت پیروی معنای ذاتی و صورت عنصر وجه نما نیست بلکه به وسیله ساختار نحوی، بافت زبانی و بافت فرازبانی عنصر وجه نما محقق می-شود.کنشی یا توصیفی بودن مفاهیم وجهی هم بر عینی، ذهنی یا میزان بیناذهنی بودن آن ها بی تاثیر است. در پایان، با اعمال الگوی پیشنهادی بر روی گونه های مختلف مفاهیم وجهی - بدون در نظر گرفتن نوع سازه وجه نمای آن ها و در چندین نمونه فارسی که به روش تصادفی از وب گاه های فارسی زبان گرفته شده بودند، مشاهده گردیدکه الگو کارایی تحلیلی مطلوبی دارد.

    کلیدواژگان: وجه نمایی فارسی، ذهنیت، بیناذهنیت، عینیت، کنشیت
  • نسرین عبدی*، فرزانه فرحزاد، گلرخ سعیدنیا صفحات 185-211
    در این پژوهش، با استفاده از مدل نقد ترجمه فرحزاد (Farahzad, 2012) که ترکیبی از تحلیل گفتمان انتقادی، راهکارهای ترجمه ای و بینامتنیت است، زمان دستوری فعل ها در پیکره ای مشتمل بر دو زندگی نامه سیاسی و ترجمه فارسی آن ها بررسی شد. هدف پژوهش، بررسی تغییرات زمان دستوری در ترجمه و امکان تلویح های ایدیولوژیک برآمده از این تغییرات از سوی مترجم است. این پژوهش به شیوه توصیفی- تحلیلی به نقد مقابله ای پرداخته و با الگوگیری از مدل سه وجهی فرحزاد (همان) فقط در سطح متنی انجام شده است. هر جمله و بند از زبان پیشین (مبدا) با معادل آن در زبان پسین (مقصد) یک به یک از جنبه زمان دستوری مقایسه شدند. در روند بررسی زمان دستوری از زندگی نامه سیاسی دو چهره سرشناس (نلسون ماندلا و مارگارت تاچر) بهره گرفته شد که هر کدام از منظر قدرت حاکم بر جامعه ایران، جایگاه اجتماعی سیاسی ویژه ای دارند؛ کاربرد زمان دستوری از سوی مترجم گاه بیانگر تلویح های ایدیولوژیک برای معرفی ماندلا به عنوان یک چهره سیاسی معتبر و اخلاقی است. در بررسی زندگی نامه تاچر مترجم وضعیت جدیدی در بازنمایی وقایع می یابد. پیشینه سیاسی تاچر نمایانگر موضع گیری های وی وتاثیر این موضع گیری ها در بازنمایی رویدادها و نمایش ایدیولوژیک آن در جامعه و تاثیرات آن بر ترجمه غیر قابل انکار است. یافته ها نشان می دهند که تغییرات زمان دستوری در دو کتاب زندگی نامه ماندلا و تاچرکه منجر به بروز تلویحات ایدیولوژیک شده اند، مانند هم نیست. اگر چه میزان تلویح های ایدیولوژیک به دست آمده از تغییر زمان دستوری، آمار چشمگیری را در این پژوهش نشان نمی دهد، اما نمی توان راهکار های گوناگون مترجم و تاثیرات قدرت و ایدیولوژی حاکم بر جامعه ایران را بر ترجمه نادیده گرفت. به باور نگارنده، تلویح های ایدیولوژیک برآمده از زمان دستوری در هر دو ترجمه در تلاش برای نشان دادن چهره خاصی از فرد است.
    کلیدواژگان: تغییر زمان دستوری، نقد ترجمه، تحلیل گفتمان انتقادی، ایدئولوژی، بینامتنیت
  • الهه تقی زاده*، جلیل الله فاروقی هندوالان، حسین نویدی نیا صفحات 213-233

    به طور کلی، اگر بخش کوچکی از توانایی های زبانی وگفتار افراد، دچار آسیب شود، زندگی اجتماعی آن ها تحت تاثیر قرار خواهدگرفت. این تاثیرپذیری در کودکان دارای اختلال تاخیر در گفتار، بیشتر است و دشواری های بسیاری را در بزرگسالی برای آن ها به وجود می آورد. بنابراین، نیاز به پژوهش در این زمینه بایسته به نظر می رسد. این مقاله، به بررسی ارتباط میان سن و جنسیت کودکان مبتلا به تاخیر در گفتار و میزان مشکلات تلفظی آن ها پرداخته است. روش پژوهش از نوع کمی است. جامعه آماری این پژوهش تعداد 50 کودک (در دسترس) دچار تاخیر در گفتار در مراکز گفتار درمانی در شهر بیرجند بودند که از میان آن ها، تعداد 20 کودک دختر و پسر به صورت نمونه گیری هدفمند (بر اساس سن و جنسیت آن ها) انتخاب گردیدند. سن کودکان بین 3 تا 8 سال بود و همه آن ها به «تاخیر در گفتار» دچار شده بودند. به منظور انجام پژوهش حاضر، از آزمون آواشناختی (فونتیک) بهره گرفته شد. در مرحله نخست، ابتدا از آزمودنی ها، آزمون گرفته شد و سپس داده های گردآوری شده با نرم افزار اس.پی.اس.اس و با استفاده ازآزمون های آنالیز واریانس یک طرفه، همبستگی پیرسون و تی دو نمونه ای مستقل، مورد تجزیه و تحلیل قرار گرفتند. یافته های پژوهش نشان داد که تفاوت معناداری مابین میزان اختلال در جایگاه های آغازین، میانی و پایانی واژه ها وجود ندارد. همچنین مابین سن و جنسیت فرد و میزان اختلال در گفتار ارتباط معناداری وجود ندارد.

    کلیدواژگان: اختلال در گفتار، سن و جنسیت، مشکلات تلفظی کودکان، جایگاه واژه ها
  • عباسعلی آهنگر*، زهرا مظفری صفحات 235-256

    منادا، واحد زبانی کوچک، ولی مهم، در پیوند با معنای پاره گفتارهای زبانی است و آن را ابزاری برای فراخواندن و جلب توجه مخاطب تعریف کرده اند. از آن جایی که ندا و منادا هیچ یک از نقش های معنایی یا نحوی را در جمله برعهده نمی گیرند و در میان موضوع های فعل جمله نیستند، همواره در نحو از موارد حاشیه ای به شمار آمده اند؛ از این رو، درباره جایگاه نحوی آن ها پژوهش های اندکی ارایه شده است. با این وجود، در دهه های اخیر بررسی ها در زمینه مفاهیم کاربردشناختی نشان داده که در نحو، فراتر از لایه گروه متمم ساز می توان فرافکنی نقشی را در نظر گرفت که رابط میان مرز نحو و کاربردشناسی است. در این لایه، امکان بررسی مفاهیم کاربردشناختی همچون منادا فراهم می شود. جستار حاضر بر آن است ندا و منادا را در مرز نحو و کاربردشناسی بر پایه پژوهش های هیل (Hill, 2007; Hill, 2013) در زبان فارسی بررسی کند. برتری این بررسی این است که می توان از همه مواردی که در یک پاره گفتار نمود می یابد مانند عامل های نحوی و کاربردشناسی، تحلیل جامعی ارایه داد. یافته های پژوهش نشان می دهد فرافکن گروه ندا در لایه گروه کارگفت در زبان فارسی، شامل حرف ندا در هسته و منادا در جایگاه متمم هسته است. همچنین مشخصه های نقشی گروه ندا در هسته شامل دو مشخصه [دوم شخص] و [بین فردی] است. با توجه به ویژگی کاربردشناختی منادا در زبان فارسی، سه مشخصه [+/- اشاری، +/- رسمی، +/- آشنایی] را می توان ازجمله مشخصه های بین فردی هسته گروه ندا در زبان فارسی دانست؛ همچنین، منادا در جایگاه متمم هسته می تواند به شکل اسم، صفت یا ضمیر قرار گیرد. از سویی، در یک گروه ندا باید بین مشخصه های نشانه ندا و مشخصه های منادا مطابقه وجود داشته باشد؛ در غیر این صورت، گروه ندا پذیرفتنی نخواهد بود.

    کلیدواژگان: ندا، منادا، لایه گروه متمم ساز، لایه گروه کارگفت، مرز نحو و کاربردشناسی
  • مریم روحانی راوری، فاطمه همتی*، افسر روحی، محمد آقاجانزاده کیاسی صفحات 257-281

    هر چند که واژه یاب به عنوان ابزاری سودمند در آموزش زبان شناخته شده است، تاثیرات احتمالی شکل ها و اندازه های آن مورد پژوهش قرار نگرفته است. بر این مبنا، مقاله حاضر به بررسی تاثیر اندازه های مختلف نمونه های واژه یاب (دو جمله کامل، یک جمله کامل و جمله ناتمام) بر یادگیری پیوسته و طولانی مدت واژه های جدید پرداخته است. شرکت کنندگان پژوهش حاضر، 66 دانشجوی زبان انگلیسی سطح متوسط به بالا بودند که با بهره گیری از آزمون تعیین سطح و از سه کلاس انتخاب شدند. هر گروه 63 واژه جدید را در یکی از این سه اندازه دریافت کردند. آموزش واژه های جدید مدت هفت جلسه به طول انجامید. در هر جلسه، برخی از واژه ها در نمونه های واژه یاب با اندازه های اشاره شده به سه گروه ارایه شده و زبان آموزان به استنباط معنای واژه ها با بهره گیری از بافت پرداختند. یافته ها نشان داد گروهی که واژه های جدید را در بافت دو جمله ای دریافت کرده بودند، در یادگیری پیوسته موفق تر عمل کردند. هر چند، تفاوت معنا داری مابین دانش واژگانی سه گروه در آزمون تاخیری یافت نشد. همچنین، میانگین گروهی که واژه ها را در جمله های ناکامل دریافت کرده بودند، پایین تر از دو گروه دیگر بود. یافته های این پژوهش می تواند به آموزش و یادگیری واژه از طریق واژه یاب کمک کند.

    کلیدواژگان: واژه یاب، اندازه نمونه های واژه یاب، استنباط معنا، یادگیری واژگان
  • صدیقه شرکت مقدم*، مریم اکرمی فرد صفحات 283-309

    ترجمه از دیرباز تاکنون به عنوان فعالیتی هدفمند و ابزاری برای انتقال فرهنگ و ادبیات ملت های گوناگون، مورد توجه بوده است. در این میان، واژه ها و اصطلاح های موجود در آثار عرفانی به دلیل دارا بودن معناهای گوناگون و نشانه های نهفته، کار ترجمه را دوچندان دشوار کرده است. بررسی و چگونگی انتقال واژه ها و عنصرهای عرفانی منطق الطیر عطار از فارسی به فرانسه به وسیله مترجم های به نام فرانسوی - لیلی انور و گارسن دو تاسی- با بهره گیری از الگوی هرمنوتیک امبرتو اکو و بررسی برداشت و دریافت آن ها، در جایگاه «خواننده-مدل» و با در نظرگرفتن استراتژی متن، هدف این پژوهش بوده است. مهم ترین یافته های این پژوهش توصیفی-تحلیلی، این مطلب است که در معادل یابی واژه ها و عنصرهای عرفانی منطق الطیر، مترجم ها با دنبال کردن مناسبت های درون متنی و فرامتنی دست به خوانش اشعار زده اند. همچنین این مترجم ها معادل های مناسبی را انتخاب کرده اند که نشان دهنده شناخت کامل آن ها از راهبردهای حاکم بر ابیات عطار است.

    کلیدواژگان: ترجمه، منطق الطیر، واژگان و عناصر عرفانی، امبرتو اکو، گارسن دو تاسی، هرمنوتیک
  • فاطمه پورمسجدیان، خدیجه سیدرمضان* صفحات 311-331

    در بافت حقوقی، دادنامه ها، گزارش ها و اسنادی مهم انگاشته می شوند. زیرا در نظام حقوقی کشور، در دادنامه ای که مشتمل بر حکم یا همان تصمیم مراجع دادرسی باشد، همه و یا برخی از موضوع دعوا به سرانجام می رسد. از این رو، فحوای آن برای طرفین کشمکش بسیار سرنوشت ساز است. در بررسی متن دادنامه ها، با موارد ابهام آمیزی مانند حذف گروه های اسمی و در برخی موارد گروه های فعلی روبه رو شدیم. هدف از جستار حاضر، یافتن سازه های یادشده و تشریح هر بند، از جنبه معناشناختی است. بنابراین، 48 دادنامه حقوقی و کیفری به روش تصادفی از دهه 50 تا90 انتخاب گردیدند و بر مبنای انگاره گذرایی و فرانقش اندیشگانی هلیدی (Halliday, 2004) - به عنوان ابزاری کارآمد- تجزیه و تحلیل شدند. همچنین، میزان فراوانی داده ها با بهره گیری از آمار توصیفی، محاسبه شد. یافته های پژوهش نشان داد که ویژگی بندهای مورداشاره که در برگیرنده تشریح و تبیین شرایط و دستور به انجام و یا ترک عمل و نیز اعلام بی گناهی و یا گناهکار بودن است، در واقع بیانگر حقایق و وضعیت موجود از جمله صحنه جرم و یا رخدادهای پرونده، نام های طرفین کشمکش و دیگر موارد بر مبنای موضوع است. در متون مورد بررسی، هیچ گزاره ای یافت نشد که نمایانگر ارایه نمودهای بیرونی از کردارها باشد و سبک نوشتاری این متن ها این گونه است که نخست، مستندات و ادله بیان می شود، سپس حکم و رای نگارش می شود. به طور کلی، بالا بودن میزان فراوانی فرآیند مادی نشان داد که ژانر حقوقی تاکید بر لازم الاجرا بودن احکام و شیوه نامه ها دارد تا رفتارهای بیرونی.

    کلیدواژگان: حکم، متون حقوقی، انگاره گذرایی و فرانقش اندیشگانی
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  • Hourieh Ahadi * Pages 9-32

    Reading is one of the most valuable skills of the human being. This complex behavior is composed of several distinct and separable subskills. Furthermore, different theories of reading methods have been proposed and each language has a different paradigm depending on its writing system. Apparently, the most common method among these is the one-to-one correspondence between phoneme and grapheme. However, this method has some drawbacks. According to Ahri and Snowling (2004), if the sequential decoding strategy is slow and inefficient it overloads the memory leading to inaccurate pronunciation and lack of associative meaning. As a result of repeated exposure to printed words, children's knowledge of spelling patterns is expanded to facilitate its retrieval of meaning. To clarify the role of decoding in reading and reading disability, a simple model of reading is proposed. According to the Simple View (Gough & Tunmer, 1986), reading ability can result from the combination of decoding and comprehension. In this view, reading comprehension is conceptualized as the product of two interrelated -but relatively independent- cognitive processes, that are, decoding (or word recognition) and listening comprehension (or language comprehension). Both of them are necessary cognitive components, and neither alone is sufficient for successful reading comprehension. In addition to word recognition problems, many reading-disabled individuals were found to have impaired reading comprehension. Although the central role of phonological deficits in word recognition difficulties has been widely demonstrated, the role of language abilities in the reading profile of dyslexic individuals has not been fully captured. Dyslexia, also known as specific reading disability, has been defined as one of several distinct learning disabilities that reading performance is markedly below what is expected in normally achieving readers (Siegel, 1992). In some studies, the existence of lexical problems in dyslexic children has been investigated. It has been shown that the level of lexical and semantic ability of children affects their reading comprehension. For example, some have explained that the breadth and depth of children's lexical knowledge affect their ability to recognize words. Additionally, there is evidence that has consistently established a strong association between language competence and reading abilities. In particular, oral vocabulary (measured with an oral receptive/expressive measure or a word definition measure) and semantic skills (measured with a synonym judgment task) were found to be concurrent and longitudinal predictors of word recognition and reading comprehension. Further contribution of oral vocabulary and semantic skills on reading comprehension in these studies provide clear support for the position that reading comprehension involves language comprehension beyond word recognition. Likewise, there are several studies about effective factors in reading. Some believe that vocabulary and syntactic ability play an important role in children's reading ability. There is also evidence that language skills such as syntactic complexity and lexical skills in 2 and 3-years old children are important predictors of their reading accuracy and comprehension in the future. Most of the research about the factors that affect reading has been in English. Hence, because of the different clarity in the orthography of different languages (from transparent to opaque languages), it is necessary to investigate these children in different languages. The present study aims to convey the relationship between reading skills and syntactic and lexical abilities in dyslexic and normal Persian-speaking children. For conducting this research, after issuing necessary licenses, primary school children with dyslexia were identified by referring to learning disorder schools in Tehran. After evaluating and diagnosing the dyslexic children by a psychologist and a speech therapist, 16 dyslexic students were selected. The Syntax Comprehension Test, Grammar Expression Test, vocabulary subtest of TOLD 3:P, and the reading test were then performed in different sessions. The results of the tests were recorded and the data were analyzed using the SPSS statistical package. According to the results of the present study, there is a significant difference in reading skills and syntactic and lexical abilities between dyslexic and normal Persian-speaking children. The results show that there is no significant correlation between reading skills and syntactic abilities. However, regarding lexical abilities in the dyslexic group, there is a significant correlation between the picture vocabulary and speed and accuracy of reading, between relational vocabulary and speed of reading, and also between oral vocabulary and reading accuracy and text comprehension (p <0.05). Moreover, there is a significant correlation between reading irregular words and two other tasks (picture vocabulary and oral vocabulary), but there is no significant correlation between reading non-words and oral vocabulary, and picture vocabulary and relational vocabulary. Therefore, strengthening the lexical ability of dyslexic children, in addition to improving their reading skill's accuracy and fluency, is essential for reading words especially irregular words.

    Keywords: dyslexia, Lexicon, Persian-speaking children, Reading, syntax
  • Jalil Fathi *, Mehran Samadi, Saeed Nourzadeh, Arash Saharkhiz Arabani Pages 33-55

    It should be noted that every teacher has his/her particular personality factors, value systems, ideologies, and cognition which greatly influence the decisions they make and the activities they do in the classroom (Donald, 2000). As a result, a bulk of studies have been carried out to shed more light on the individual and psychological variables of teachers. In this line of inquiry, the investigation of the associations among some teacher-related variables such as teacher self-efficacy, burnout, emotional intelligence, commitment, resilience, and job satisfaction has enjoyed much research attention. Grounded in social cognitive theory and first introduced by Bandura (1997), self-efficacy is defined as “belief in one's capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments” (p.3).  As far as educational contexts and teachers are concerned, self-efficacy was defined by Tschannen-Moran, Hoy, and Hoy (1998) as “the teacher's belief in his or her capability to organize and execute courses of action required to accomplish a specific teaching task in a particular context” (p.22). As another teacher-related variable, burnout is defined as a dysfunctional response to chronic emotional and interpersonal stressors at work. It occurs more in interpersonally oriented occupations such as the teaching profession (Maslach, 1999; Maslach & Leiter, 1999). Individuals who burn out are enduring stress overload and devaluating others as well as themselves, accordingly, they show a syndrome of emotional exhaustion (EE), depersonalization (DE), and reduced personal accomplishment (RPA) (Maslach, 1999). Teacher self-concept can be broadly defined as teachers’ self-perceptions of their teaching effectiveness. Researchers have emphasized the importance of teachers’ competence beliefs (often labeled as self-efficacy or self-concept), which may influence teacher-related psychological variables (Devos, Dupriez, & Paquay, 2012). Overall, the purpose of the present study was set to investigate the role of teachers’ sense of efficacy and self-concept as predictors of teacher burnout in the Iranian EFL context. To this end, three validated scales measuring these variables were administered to 184 male and female teachers. The collection of the required data was initiated by distributing the questionnaires of the three variables to the participants. To ease the data collection procedure, both online and paper-and-pencil versions of the questionnaires were used. As the participants had a good command of English proficiency, the English version of the questionnaires was administered to the EFL teachers. The online versions of the questionnaires were created by placing the items of the questionnaires on Google Docs and then shared on internet channels and groups in which Iranian EFL teachers from various parts of the country are joined. The gathered data were analyzed by the SPSS AMOS 20.  First, the dataset was examined with regard to the missing and outlier values. The analysis initially indicated that there were no wrongly coded data. Additionally, while analyzing the missing values, few missing items were randomly assigned through the expectation-maximization (EM) algorithm. Afterward, Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) was employed to examine the prediction of independent over dependent variables and various goodness of fit indices were analyzed. The results indicated that teacher self-concept accounted for 14.5% of the variance, and teacher self-efficacy accounted for 22.6% of the variance in burnout. Although both variables had a unique effect on teaching burnout, teacher self-efficacy turned out to be a stronger predictor of burnout. Concerning the implications of this study, teacher education programs should pay more serious attention to teacher self-efficacy and self-concept as they proved to play a significant role in reducing teacher burnout. From this perspective, EFL teacher educators are recommended to adopt a practical course of action to foster both teacher self-concept and self-efficacy in order to help both pre-service and in-service teachers to cope with stressful situations in a more effective way. To this end, teacher education programs should focus on teachers’ professional identity which is closely associated with both teacher reflection and self-efficacy. Development of teacher identity requires interpretation and reinterpretation of who the teacher is and whom he aspires to be. Through this process of identity re-construction, ELT teachers can become more reflective, thereby becoming more emotionally attached to their jobs (Holland & Lachicotte, 2007). If the Iranian ELT community gets closer to professionalism by re-constructing identities of ELT practitioners more effectively, enhanced teachers’ self-efficacy and their improved reflectivity would reduce their stress and burnout. As for the suggestions for further research, the generalizability of these findings can be enhanced if future researchers utilize qualitative or mixed methods research designs. Such studies are likely to provide a more in-depth understanding of the variables influencing teaching burnout in EFL contexts.

    Keywords: Burnout, EFL Teachers, Structural Equation Modelling, Teacher Self-Concept, teacher self-efficacy
  • Saeed Reza Yousefi, Mahinnaz Mirdehghan *, Tina B&Ouml, Gel Pages 57-89

    The present research aims to investigate the effect of stress on Vafsi oblique clitic PAMs and accordingly determine their placement based on LFG analysis by using the prosody-syntax interface.  Vafsi is one of the Iranian languages belonging to the Tati group of Iranian North-Western languages which is spoken only in four villages of Vafs, Chehreghan, Gurchan, and Fark in Markazi province.  This research is library-based, but, in cases of need for more evidence, linguistic productions of the native middle and old-aged male residents of Chehreghan and Vafs are used. The theory in this research is bifurcated. First, the theory of clitics is introduced, and based on Zwicky & Pullum’s (1983) criteria for discriminating clitics from affixes, 8 types of Vafsi clitics are classified. Vafsi distinguishes between direct and oblique case person-agreement markers (PAM) (Stilo. 2010). While the PAMs representing the direct case (set 1) are suffixal to the verb, the oblique PAMs (set 2) are usually enclitic. Based on the transformational generative grammar, the last type of Vafsi clitics, which is Vafsi oblique PAMs create challenges in determining clitichood, as they act as affixes in some placements but as enclitics in others. Hence, based on the transformational generative grammar, earlier studies (Stilo, 2004a. 2004b; 2010), have classified Vafsi oblique PAMs (set 2) into two categories of “affixal form” and “clitic form”. There are several criteria in determining the placement of clitics: syntactic factors, phonological/prosodic processes, a combination of syntactic-phonological/prosodic processes, and semantic/pragmatic factors. Therefore, the second part of the theory which is LFG will be used to determine Vafsi oblique PAMs clitichood condition. The direct case PAMs (set 1) are always suffixed to the verb. The verbal complex (VC) also hosts many different particles (for example negation, duration and punctual markers, and preverbs) which precede the verb itself. The clitic PAMs (set 2) usually appear directly preceding the VC and must never occur directly following the verb. Depending on whether the host ends in a consonant or a vowel, the clitic adjusts its form and either retains its vowel (refer to Stilo. 2010. pp. 53-57 for examples). The clitic is not limited to the preverbal position. Besides further positions in the clause, the clitic can also appear within the VC in VC-initial sentences. However, this position (and the clitic’s ‘form’) is constrained by the co-occurrence of other VC-related particles. Consider the following example of the 1Sg PAM clitic in combination with the punctual marker bǽ (b- before vowels) in a sentence with a non-initial VC ((1a)) and a sentence-initial VC ((1b)) (Stilo. 2010. p. 247). (1) a.  án=om [bǽ-diæ]vc b.   [b-ím-diæ]vc that=1S.OBL   PUNCT-saw   PUNCT-1S.OBL-saw I saw that. I saw. Another stressed particle preceding the verb, which shows the same pattern concerning the clitic (and cannot co-occur with the punctual marker) is the negative marker nǽ. In contrast, if the clitic co-occurs with the unstressed duration marker ær, the pattern changes ((2)) (Ibid). (2)  a.    an=om ær-góæ b. [im-ær-góæ]vc that=1S.OBL DUR-want  [1S.OBL-DUR-want]vc I want that. I want. Examples like (1b) and (2b) led to Stilo’s conclusion that the clitic has an affixal counterpart. Note, however, that these combinations are the only ones where the clitic appears as an affix. In all other combinations (VC-external and VC-internal), the clitic retains its original form. An alternative explanation that goes without this bi-categorical analysis is the assumption that the clitic is sensitive to prosodic constraints in the sense that it has a ‘stressed’ form (ím) and an ‘unstressed’ form (om). Therefore, we can conclude that if the clitic is stranded in the sentence-initial position, it is placed after the first stressed element of the following VC. In (1b), this is the punctual marker bǽ, which is shortened to b- preceding vowel-initial material. The stress is then assigned to the clitic which assumes its ‘stressed’ form ím. In (2b), stress is on the main verb, so the clitic should be placed following the whole verbal complex. However, as noted above, the clitic is banned from that position. It thus remains in its original position as the first item in an intonational phrase, again assuming its ‘stressed’ form to compensate for the missing prosodic host on its left. It can thus be assumed that the PAM clitics originate in the position preceding the verbal complex which usually provides them with a prosodic host to their left in c-structure and p-structure. However, in sentences where the clitic is the sole element preceding the verbal complex, Vafsi seeks to repair this prosodic violation by a) prosodic inversion or b) adaption of the clitic to a ‘stressed’ form, both assumed to take place in p-structure.  In conclusion, it can be claimed that in this research, we showed that the oblique Vafsi PAMs do not have an affixal counterpart, since all instances and forms of the clitics can be justified regarding prosodic constraints. In cases where the prosodically deficient oblique enclitic is left without a suitable host, prosodic inversion aims to place the clitic accordingly. The so-called ‘affixal form’ corresponds to the cases where the clitic is forced to carry stress itself and consequently assumes a ‘full form’. Therefore, the ‘affixal forms’ in Stilo’s classification are in fact clitics carrying stress. In the end, a complete formal analysis of the oblique pronoun clitics at the syntax-prosody interface in LFG is provided based on Bögel (2015).

    Keywords: Lexical Functional Grammar (LFG), syntax-prosody interface, Vafsi Syntax, Vafsi PAMs, Vafsi clitics
  • Ali Mohammad Mohammadi *, Rahim Dehghan Pages 91-116

    Establishing coherence in discourse is an interactive process that is activated through different types of communicative knowledge and skills. Part of this knowledge includes knowledge of the text to organize grammatical and lexical forms to convey meaning. Another part of this faculty is connected to the metalanguage level. It consists of the power to express personal and social identities, to use language to express attitudes and negotiate meaning, and the cognitive ability to manipulate ideas (Maschler and Schiffrin, 2015). Discourse markers (DMs) function in all of the above cognitive, expressive, social, and textual domains and operate as metacommunicative and metadiscursive elements (Frank-job, 2006). Consequently, they become devoid of semantic meaning due to their sensitivity to contextual variables in real-life situations and assume new interactive pragmatic behaviors and strategies known as pragmaticalization in discourse (Jucker & Ziv, 1998). Therefore, their real precise and comprehensive uses, functions, and strategies can mainly be explored within the framework of communicative purposes and interactive contexts. Accordingly, some researchers have come to the idea that analysis of a functional spectrum of discourse markers in social contexts is the most practical and useful method of investigation (Crible & Degand, 2019; Frank-job, 2006; Groute, 2002; Hyland, 2005; Trillo, 2009). As a result, the researchers tried to analyze translation criticism in the Persian language in terms of the types and the frequency of DMs functions. This descriptive, qualitative, and explorative study benefits from various scientific and research informing bases and resources: the study of famous and key authors’ theoretical studies, investigation of key empirically corpus-based researches, and pragmatic analysis of the functional spectrum of discourse markers in randomly selected translation criticism corpus in the Persian language during the three last decades. Moreover, the present study applied Fraser’s (2006) taxonomy of discourse markers and Brinton’s (1996) functional model for the analysis of discourse markers. The taxonomy of discourse markers provides the criteria for the determination of DM use from non-DM use of these metadiscursive elements in translation criticism discourse. And the functional model is applied to discover the functional range of DMs in this genre. Another informing resource of the research was its raters. Both raters were English instructors with 5 years of experience in teaching, familiar with the literature, have conducted researches in this area, and possessed the necessary expertise.   The corpus consisted of 15 translation criticisms written by Iranian translation professors (%75) and professional translators (%25) published in Motarjem, the Iranian journal with more than 30 years of experience in translation theory, analysis, and education. Moreover, the corpus consisted of more than 30000 words selected randomly. All of the instances of DMs’ use were determined and sorted by applying Fraser’s taxonomy of discourse markers and DMs functional spectrums were analyzed and explored through Brinton’s functional model. And about 50% of the instances of the DMs along with their functions in the sentence were extracted and given to the raters to approve the reliability of the research. The findings resulted in a six-plane functional spectrum model for a discourse monitoring system in the translation criticism genre including information indicators, topic switchers, attitude markers, temporal markers, opening markers, and closing markers. They are not covered in Persian grammar and dictionaries. Also, the correlation coefficient of inter-rater reliability was .61, which is an acceptable index of reliability. The diversity and flexibility in the functional spectrum can be justified from different perspectives. Subsequently, in the process of translation criticism DMs are manipulated creatively in order to prove the inadequacies of the translation or to characterize the qualifications of the rendering. This justification is in line with findings and ideas reported by Fischer (2006). Moreover, justification for this flexibility is related to Frank-job’s (2006) view of pragmaticalization of meaning in discourse. That is, in real-life situations, the propositional meaning of discourse markers is changed drastically, they assume pragmatic meanings, and these meanings change based on context. This context covers cognitive, expressive, social, and textual domains. These domains are manipulated by contextual variables. These variables include people, places, and times. DMs’ functional spectrums manipulated by the variables and they assume new interactive meanings in discourse. This functional spectrum may constantly be influenced by multiple, complex, innovative, and creative inferences and is always changing, developing, and evolving systematically. As DMs form the basic cognitive, social, cultural, and efficient discursive system of human communication, then, it is recommended that any modifications, developments, and plans in education, research, and management in various aspects of translation education be based on research on the pragmatic functions of these metalanguage elements.

    Keywords: discourse markers, functional spectrum, Pragmaticalization, translation criticism
  • Salehe Ghazanfari Moghaddam *, Mohammad Jafar Yahaghi, Reza Pishghadam, Shima Ebrahimi Pages 117-145

    The significance of teaching language has motivated various studies in which many procedures have been suggested like applying literature in language teaching. Most of these studies have focused on cultural issues and the direct use or rewriting of literary texts. Yet, this study aimed to use the language framework applied in these texts to produce educational material. The concern of this study was to observe which literary text could provide a suitable pattern for language teaching and what features they should have to ease the learning process. The authenticity and comprehensibility are the first factors suggested. Accordingly, Ferdowsi’s Shahname was selected for analysis as its authenticity and validity and its effective role in maintaining Farsi. In comparison to other texts, it is much older and its language is still comprehensible. Also, it seems that by investigating lexical combinations in Shahname, the way it preserves the lexis can be shown. This descriptive-analytic investigation of lexical relations in the statistical sample shows about 40% of the lexes have dual combinations, half of which are excluded from the general description of collocations. Therefore, the phrase “binary lexes” was suggested here. Additionally, about 70% of binary combinations are meaningful types, this means that the reader is dealing with a great number of binary lexes in the text and reader has tried to understand the words and content by activating his former knowledge about lexes. This feature can help design educational material for language teaching.New perspectives and attitudes toward teaching language and its skills have led to the proposal of new challenges and approaches. Using literature in language teaching is just one of these approaches and based on this theory, literary language with all its special features attracts learners in addition to providing the cultural background of the language, it helps the learner understand language on multiple semantic levels while it also increases their linguistic awareness, which in turn increases their language proficiency and ability in interpreting sentences (Lazar, 1993).Various studies have been conducted on the use of literature in teaching Farsi, which often focuses on the function of literature in transmitting cultural matters, however, some have also examined the impact of literature on enhancing the learners’ language understanding and proficiency. The aim of this study was to investigate the use of literature as context and framework for teaching educational content, which has been the focus of few studies based on the researchers’ knowledge.For this matter, it was required to refer to authentic and reliable texts whose language was also meaningful for the audience (Mishan, 2005; Tomlinson, 2011). With this hypothesis that Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh has had a unique role in the survival and enhancement of Farsi, and it also holds an active, reliable and authentic language, in this study we tried to investigate one of its linguistic features in language teaching. As learning vocabulary is a significant step in all major approaches (Bottom-up approach, Top-down approach, Interactive approach) in language teaching and various solutions have been suggested to ease the process (like lexical network, collocations), it seems that investigating lexical relations in Shahnameh could also be a good framework and contribute to designing educational material.For this purpose, after reviewing the related studies and background as well as recognizing the theoretical foundations, parts of the Shahnameh (Volume 1 through 5) were selected randomly. In the descriptive-analytical method, the lexical relations of meaning (reckoning, confrontation, contradiction, proportion and association), structural (spatial and syntactic), and phonetic in all terms were extracted and categorized. The reliability of the data was verified by a group of graduates and PhD students in the Persian language and literature.Results showed that lexical relations in Shahnameh show that there is a dual link (beyond the definition of the collocation) in a vast volume of text (nearly half of it), which along with other lexical relations places almost the whole text within a network as there are no words left aside without having any connection with other words. This feature makes the language of the text available and understandable to the reader. The authors proposed the term “lexical binaries” and believe that this feature could be used to develop Persian language teaching resources and to facilitate the learning of learners.

    Keywords: Lexical binaries, Ferdowsi’s Shahname, Teaching Farsi
  • Gholamreza Medadian * Pages 147-183
  • Nasrin Abdi *, Farzane Farahzad, Golrokh Saeednia Pages 185-211
    Today, translation has become a major means of communication. It plays an important role in the transfer of information and establishing relationships among individuals and nations. Translation is "a conscious, planned activity, performed in a controlled manner and aims at establishing communication between different cultural environments"(as cited in Sidiropoulou 2004, p.1). Ideology is considered highly important in a wide range of academic disciplines including cultural studies, communications, linguistics, and translation studies. Ideology and its effect on translation have long become a research focus in the field of translation studies. If we advocate the theories on the relationship between translation and ideology, then we would witness many cultural clashes revealing the distance between the source text and the ideological encounters it creates in the translated text. Therefore, surveying different translations of the same source text from an ideological point of view can yield insightful clues as to where the differences of these translations come from. The present paper reports the results of a study conducted aiming to explore the relationship between ideology and translation as well as the impact of the translator’s ideology and the dominant ideology on the target text. The process of translation is manipulated by ideology, which involves both the translator’s ideology and the dominant ideology of the society. It is the complex interaction of the two ideologies that results in the difference in the translation product as well as the necessary changes made in the process of translation through the translator’s subjectivity. Many scholars have emphasized that the exercise of ideology is as old as the history of translation itself. According to Fawcett (1998), “throughout the centuries, individuals and institutions applied their particular beliefs to the production of a certain effect in translation” (p. 107). He further claims that an ideological approach to translation can be found in some of the earliest examples of translation known to us. Nevertheless, the linguistic-oriented approach to translation studies has failed to address the concept of ideology through years of prevalence, because such approaches are limited to their scientific models for research and the empirical data they collect, so that according to Venuti (1998a), “they remain reluctant to take into account the social values and ideologies that enter into translating as well as the study of it”. Perez (2003) reflects the ideas of CDA scholars, where she states that all language use is ideological and as translation is carried out on language use, translation itself is a site of ideological encounters. As Fawcett (1998, p.107) demonstrates, “translation, simply because of its existence, have always been ideological”. Schaffner (2003) mentions that ideological aspects within the text are determined at the lexical level and grammatical level. She explains: Ideological aspect can [...] be determined within a text itself, both at the lexical level (reflected, for example, in the deliberate choice or avoidance of a particular word [...]) and the grammatical level (for example, use of passive structures to avoid an expression of agency). Ideological aspects can be more or less obvious in texts, depending on the topic of a text, its genre, and communicative purposes. This paper studies "verb tenses and their probable ideological implications in translation" based on Farhzad's Critical Model of Translation (2012), which uses a combination of Contrastive Discourse Analysis (CDA), Translation Strategies, and Intertextuality. The corpus of study has been taken out of the memories of two non-Iranian politicians (Nelson Mandela and Margaret Thatcher) and their translated books. The results showed several tense shifts in translation and their ideological implications, however not significant. Ideological implications in studying these books were not the same in the two books. The political background in Iran shows that these politicians enjoy different political and social perspectives from the points of view of dominant political power in Iran. The study showed that applying tense shifts explores some ideological implications, consciously or unconsciously, to present Mandela as a popular, moral, and political character and person; but on the other hand, in a translation of Thatcher’s, the translator faces with a new status in the representation of happenings and events during the story. The political background of Thatcher shows her unfair positioning against Iran and its authority power and consequently its unpleasant and effects in representing events and ideology in translation which is undeniable. Although the statistical outputs of the ideological implications are not significant through the study, we cannot ignore the translator’s different strategies such as deleting a series of social and political issues through translation by removing traditional and religious customs and traditions for example in Mandela’s translation and/or deleting some ideological sentences in Thatcher’s. Ideological implications resulting from the tense shifts in both translations attempt to represent a significant and special characteristic of these persons in the society of Iran. The author believes that tense shifts, almost insignificantly, represent different outlooks from some angles of political, personality, and behavior of these two political faces.
    Keywords: CDA, ideology, Intertextuality, tense shifts, translation criticism
  • Elahe Taghizadeh *, Jalilolah Faroughi Hendevalan, Hossein Navidinia Pages 213-233

    Generally, if a small part of people's language and speech is affected, their social life will be affected as well. This effect can be observed more in children with speech delay disorders which can create many problems for them in adulthood (including their education, communication, self-confidence, etc.). What can add to the existing problem is the fact that in many contexts, students having hearing disorders and normal students go to the same schools and are educated together. Therefore, the need to conduct research to investigate the problems of children with speech disorders and find ways to reduce the negative consequences in these children seem necessary. What can add to the significance of conducting this study is the paucity of studies addressing this issue in the Iranian context. Therefore, this study investigated the pronunciation problems of children with speech delay and its relationship with their age and gender. More specifically, it tried to examine if there are differences among the children’s pronunciation problems with the initial, middle and end positions of the words and to investigate the possible relationship that the number of problems may have with the children’s age and gender. The research method is quantitative. The statistical population of this study were 50 children in Birjand Speech Therapy Centers, from whom 20 girls and boys were selected based on purposive sampling. The sample was selected based on their age and gender, because the study investigated a specific age group. Furthermore, the sample was selected in a way that the number of both genders was equal.  The children were aged between 3 and 8 years, and all of them had "speech delays." In order to collect data, Phonetic Test was used. This test includes 69 pictures and measures the children’s ability in articulating words correctly. Therefore, the focus of the test is on the way of sound articulation. The content validity of this test has been confirmed by speech therapists. Using the Cronbach's alpha method which is the most common method for calculating reliability. The reliability of the test in this study was calculated to be 0.91. In the first stage of the study, the test was taken from the subjects and then the data were analyzed using SPSS software. Then, the descriptive and inferential statistics were run and reported. To be more organized, the results for each research question were reported in separate sections in the study. The statistical tests used in this study were one-way ANOVA, Pearson correlation, and independent samples t-test. Based on its purposes, the study is guided by three research questions. The first research question examined if there were any significant differences among the number of pronunciation problems of children at the initial, middle and end positions of the words. One-way ANOVA was used to examine the differences among the number of problems in different positions of the words. The findings indicated no significant differences among the range of the pronunciation problems of children in the different positions of the words. The second research question examined if there was a significant relationship between the children’s pronunciation problems and their age. Pearson correlation was used to measure the relationship between these two variables. The findings indicated no significant differences among the children’s age and the number of pronunciation errors that they had. The third research question examined the differences between the frequency of errors made by girls and boys in the test. Independent sample t-test was used to examine the differences between the two groups. The results indicated no significant differences between the number of problems that the two groups (girls and boys) had. The study had some pedagogical implications for the therapists and teachers who try to help these students. The findings of this study found no significant differences among the number of problems the children had in different positions of the words. Also, it found no significant differences among the number of problems the girls and boys had while articulating the words. Furthermore, no significant relationship was found between the children’s age and the number of problems they had. Furthermore, the study had some limitations. First, the number of the participants were 20 children, and the researchers could not find more participants to take part in this study. Therefore, it is suggested that future studies try replicating this study with a larger sample. Also, working on other age groups can be another line of research that can be followed by future studies.

    Keywords: Age, Gender, Children's Speech Problems, Speech Disorder, Word Position
  • Abbas Ali Ahangar *, Zahra Mozaffari Pages 235-256

    Vocatives are small but important expressions in the meaning of an utterance. They are defined as a means of drawing an addressee's attention, in order to “establish or maintain a relationship between this addressee and some proposition” (Lambrecht, 1996, p.267). In spite of their importance, we can claim that the investigation of the vocatives has been neglected in linguistic inquiry until very recently. Meanwhile, the vocatives do not take any syntactic or semantic role in the sentence and are not parts of the sentence structure, they have been considered as peripheral to syntax as well. Traditionally, vocative phrases have been considered purely pragmatic phenomena; as a result, they have been studied from the pragmatic viewpoint. Alternatively, recent studies (Rizzi, 1997; Spease & Tenny, 2003; Speas, 2004; Hill, 2007, 2013) propose that there are syntactic projections that encode information relevant to the interface between syntax and pragmatics. According to these studies, in a structural field above CP, some pragmatic phenomena such as vocatives can be studied. This assumption is based on the observation in some languages that there is agreement between pragmatic phenomena such as vocatives or interjections and syntactic features such as case, number and persons. Hill (2007) studies vocatives in the speech act domain above CP. He claims that markers surrounding vocative nouns that express pragmatic notions and are thought of as attention drawing interjections show restricted pattern of co-occurrence and ordering in languages that call for syntactic analysis. Hill (2007) believes that vocative phrases are derived through the same set of computations that apply to the core syntax, except for the point that the fields in which these computations occur are in the domain of discourse. In this approach, which tries analyzing pragmatic phenomena in the syntax-pragmatics interface, a vocative phrase is a functional projection whose head (V0) contains a vocative particle which, in turn, selects a DP (vocative nouns) as its complement. Hill (2013) focuses on the internal structure of vocatives and their relations with the clause. He considers a vocative phrase as the indirect object of the speech act head mapped at the left periphery of the clause.Therefore, the present study aims to survey vocatives and vocative particles based on Hill’s (2007, 2013) study in the syntax-pragmatics interface in Persian. The advantage of this approach is that it is possible to account for a whole range of pragmatic phenomena occurring in an utterance. The linguistic data in the study were selected from diverse texts including poetic, formal and colloquial writings to account for the formal and informal vocative particles in Persian.Vocatives in Persian are formed by an optional vocative particle and some grammatical categories such as proper or common nouns, adjectives and pronouns (Anvari & Givi, 1997, p.95). Vocative particles (as the head) can be overt or covert in a vocative phrase. By covert, it means that a vocative particle is present in the head position; however, it does not have any phonetic realization. Thus, in some instances, the vocative particle specifies a null vocative in Persian, therefore, it can be understood from the context. The results of the study indicate that a vocative phrase in Persian is a type of syntactic phrase named “a vocative phrase projection” in the speech act layer in the syntax-pragmatics interface. A vocative phrase contains a vocative either overt or covert particle in the head position of the vocative phrase that selects a vocative as its complement.The vocative particle in the head position of a vocative phrase projection contains a [2nd person] feature and [inter-personal (i-p)] feature. The [i-p] feature is specified by three other functional features, including [+/-Deictic, +/- formality, +/-familiarity]. Interpersonal features refer to all kinds of interpersonal relationships between the speaker and hearer. A vocative sometimes refers to a hearer that can be the speaker hence it has deictic property. If no referent is available, the deictic feature is inactive. The feature formality refers to the usage of formal or informal vocative particles in Persian. The feature familiarity refers to the speaker-addressee relations. Sometimes, there is a close relationship between the speaker and hearer; therefore, the feature of familiarity is active. In conclusion, this study proposes that the interpretation of vocatives requires correlating syntax and pragmatics in the interface and a vocative phrase is a functional projection bearing pragmatic features above the complementizer phrase layer (CP). By considering a speech act layer above the CP, vocatives, interjections, and other pragmatic phenomena can be studied syntactically.

    Keywords: complementizer phrase layer, pragmatics-syntax interface, speech act layer, Vocative Particles, vocatives
  • Maryam Rohani Ravari, Fatemeh Hemmati *, Afsar Rouhi, Mohammad Aghajanzadeh Kiasi Pages 257-281

    There is a consensus among language teachers and researchers about the critical role of vocabulary acquisition in language learning development (e.g., Webb & Nation, 2017; Schmitt, 2008(. However, vocabulary learning poses a challenge for most EFL learners (e.g., Schouten-van Parreren, 1980; McCarten, 2007; Teng, 2016). A large number of studies have explored the influence of different vocabulary instruction techniques on enhancing language learners' vocabulary development (Webb & Nation, 2017). More recently, concordance-based instruction has been introduced as a beneficial approach for teaching vocabulary (Boulton & Cobb, 2017; Kazaz, 2015; Soruc & Tekin, 2017). This approach engages learners in data-driven learning (DDL) which requires them to explore concordance examples and discover knowledge for themselves. DDL is in line with the inductive language learning and exploratory approach. In concordance-based vocabulary instruction, learners are exposed to language instances and are supposed to both notice the meaning of the target lexicon or recognize the patterns and understand them through analysis and generalizations which is in line with the noticing hypothesis. Also, according to Craik and Lockhart’s (1972) theory of depth of processing, there is a hierarchy of processing levels and deeper processing of information is conducive to longer retention of words. In the present study, the learners were asked to infer the meaning of unfamiliar words which required them to analyze the contexts for contextual clues and also evaluate the accuracy and appropriateness of their inferences. Constructivist learning theory is another theory that provides support for this study. This theory is based on the idea that knowledge is not passively accumulated and learners themselves actively construct their knowledge. Stated differently, this theory posits that learning doesn’t occur through transmitting a body of knowledge by instructors as it is supposed by traditional approaches (Boulton, 2017). In the present study, learners actively analyzed concordance lines, generated and tested hypotheses, and discovered knowledge for themselves. On the other hand, presenting words in context provides learners with an opportunity to infer the meaning of unknown words through using contextual clues (Van den Broek et al., 2018). It is believed that the meaning inference of unfamiliar words plays an important role in developing learners’ word knowledge (Hamada, 2009). To sum up, concordancing paves the way for lexical inferencing by presenting the words in multiple contexts which improves vocabulary learning (Nassaji, 2006). Since the focus of literature has mostly been on comparing concordance-based vocabulary teaching and learning with more traditional methods, ignoring the fact that concordance can take various formats (Balance, 2016), the present study addressed this issue by exploring the effect of three different concordance formats (two complete sentences, one complete sentence, and incomplete sentence) on learners’ vocabulary gain and retention. The participants of the study were 66 upper-intermediate English language learners who were selected from three classes based on their performance on Quick Oxford Placement Test. Each group received 63 new words in one of the concordance formats. The target words were presented in the three formats within 7 sessions and the participants of each group were asked to infer the meaning of the new words from one of the contexts. The effect of the three concordance formats on learners’ vocabulary gain and retention was explored by conducting 2 one-way ANOVAs. Moreover, post hoc multiple comparisons were run to locate any significant differences across the three groups. The results revealed that using concordance examples in all three formats was effective in learning new words. However, those who received two-sentence concordance examples outperformed the other groups in the immediate vocabulary test. The first group’s better performance in the immediate test of vocabulary gain, can be attributed to their access to a larger context and hence more contextual clues that were noticed by them, their more involvement in the task, and more successful meaning construction from the context.  Furthermore, no significant difference was found between the three groups with regard to vocabulary retention. However, the descriptive statistics revealed that the group who received incomplete sentences was less successful in vocabulary retention compared to the other groups. Therefore, using concordance examples in incomplete sentence formats is not recommended for presenting new words. Despite its advantages, the use of concordancer for language learning is not widespread (Romer, 2010). This is the case for the Iranian context where teachers and learners are mostly unaware of concordance availability or are unfamiliar with using this tool. Since language learners don’t have access to online concordance inside the classroom, language teachers can prepare printed concordance examples in the two-sentence format to teach new words and gradually encourage learners to use online concordance outside the classroom. The findings provide insights into the use of concordance in vocabulary teaching and learning.

    Keywords: concordance, concordance format, meaning inference, Vocabulary Learning
  • Seddigheh Sherkat Moghaddam *, Maryam Akramifard Pages 283-309

    Translation has always been considered as one of the practical means of international culture and literature exchange. What makes the act of translation even more difficult is the existence of some kind of polysemic mystical terms that present numerous mysterious connotations to the reader. The translation becomes more difficult considering that the mystical terms are the terms that hide various mysterious senses inside or they’re small phrases that carry other meanings far from their apparent one -the meaning that comes from a spiritual world. In addition, some of them contain a mystical connotation extracted from Koranic or religious stories as well as the thoughts which come from the poet’s spiritual inspirations. Thus, finding the meaning of such terms and transferring them to other languages is a difficult task that needs minuteness and expertise; therefore, the translator is obligated to do complete comprehensive research for finding the most relevant equivalent which could transfer the same connotation to other languages. In this research, we studied the means of analyzing the mystical terms and lexis which were extracted from the Sufis’ religious-Islamic thoughts and beliefs. We applied the hermeneutic theories of Umberto Eco, the contemporary Italian hermeneut and philosopher, in this research. Eco, in his comprehensive researches in the interpretation and translations domain, discusses “the auteur’s position” and in the other way “the reader’s position”, that’s why he indicates “the text strategy” and by putting the reader on the above of all text priorities, defines the limits of interpretation. In Eco’s viewpoint, the Intra-textual coherence defines the text’s interpretation’s limits. Therefore, the reader should not impose his expectations on the text and interpret it according to his willingness or try to find and understand the author’s intention. Eco believes that the reader completes the act of creating the sense stated by the author, by completing his task of reading. The main objective of this study is to analyze the process of transferring mystical terms and symbols in Persian to French translation of Mantiq al-Tayr of Farid ud-Din Muhammad b. Ibrahim Attar, translated by two famous French translators, Leili Anvar and Garcin de Tassy, by applying the hermeneutic approach of Umberto Eco and studying their interpretations in the state of “Model Reader”. Eco defines the “Model Reader” as a reader who reads the text consciously and cognitively, such a reader can access the underlying layers of text and adopts a proper interpretation. “The text creates a world in which a reader must know the rules of the game provided by the text in order to enter it in the position of Model Reader, such a reader is familiar with intra-textual structure and principles governing the text so he starts his reading process considering this knowledge.” (Rahimi, 2011: 135) In the analytic section of our study, we analyzed five mystical terms selected from Mantiq al-Tayr of Attar: حقیقت [truth], کلام [word], پیر [old], جان [soul], نفس [self], we started our study by indicating two translations of each word then we continued by analyzing the text and its structural challenges to find out if the translator’s interpretation is proper or we can consider it as an overinterpretation, in the final section, we studied different mystical sources to verify if the translators represented the accurate interpretations from the text and terms. The most significant result of this analytical descriptive study is that these two translators followed all intertextual and intratextuality relations in their reading of the text, thus they had chosen proper equivalences which indicates their great knowledge of Attar poems scheme. Anvar and Tassy with their interpretation from each term, their great knowledge about text’s structure and its influence on the reader, tried to represent a target-oriented and meaning-oriented translation. The translators didn’t make an overinterpretation from mystical terms and they tried to interpret the terms as a Model Reader. Generally, we consider these two translations as two almost successful translations of Mantiq al-Tayr. The translators are familiar with the culture and language of the source text, the Islamic mystic, spiritual culture, and Attar’s views. So, they tried to transfer the accurate sense of each term conveying the mystical and symbolic connotation, to the target text. However, considering the fact that we cannot express mystical notions and connotations in the limited frame of words and sentences, finding and replacing the most exact equivalence for each term is the most difficult task. Consequently, we invite other researchers who are interested in translating mystical literary works, to use their spiritual interpretation as well as their subjective interpretation in their interpretation and translation process.

    Keywords: Garcin de Tassy, Hermeneutic, Mantiq al-Tayr, Mystic terms, Umberto Eco
  • Fatemeh Pourmasjedian, Khadijeh Seyedramezan * Pages 311-331

    In legal contexts, lawsuits are considered important documents because they involve verdicts or the same decision of the judicial authority. All or some of the verdicts of the dispute are resolved. So, they are binding and decisive. By examining the texts, it was clearly seen that they are elliptic and ambiguous, including some verbs and nominal groups that according to equivalent-deletion rules are omitted. Moreover, these ambiguities and ellipsis arose over the coordination of one verb with another one by using and as relative clause in order to avoid repetition. The nominal groups as subjects which are omitted because of the topicalization to make a passive sentence, is another ambiguous factor. Therefore, the first question of this article is what each clause of the written lawsuits represents according to Halliday’s transitivity model and the second question of the research seeks which processes, participants, and circumstances have the most frequency. The above discussion leads to selecting and analyzing 48 criminal and legal lawsuits randomly from the 50s to the 90s by utilization of the transitivity model of Halliday’s ideational metafunction as an efficient tool. Frist of all, the ellipsis elements are found in the text. Then, by the diagnosis of the sort of the processes in terms of semantics, the variety of the participants are identified. Afterward, the sort of circumstances of each clause, which demonstrate the manner and reason of the occurrence of the process types are identified. All the elements of transitivity model are demonstrated in a table in the article. Further, descriptive statistics have been used to measure the frequency of data and some tables are drawn to show them. Finally, all the frequencies are compared and interpreted.  According to the first question of this research, the material process in legal discourse involves the performance of action. The same clauses, which in terms of discourse are related to such processes, show the verbal strength    of the judge or prosecutor. Such clauses are more active and dynamic. The participants which are more used in this process are goal and actor. Hence, the goal participant indicates that in this genre, the action is more important than the actor, for this reason the clauses are seen as topicalization with a passive structure. In some clauses, the relational process expresses and explains the situation and scene of crime. However, it describes the reason of the issued verdicts in another clauses. Therefore, the gender of its participants is identified, identifier, carrier, and attributing. The attributing participant is the participant with the highest frequency. Further, the description of the situation is more significant. The clauses which are included in a speech by a person as a judicial representative that they announce the final verdict are verbal processes. In this type of process, participants are sayer, receiver, and target. The only participant which is more used in these texts is target because it is more important to know the results of the discussion and the decision. Some clauses that are representing the desire and aspiration are mental processes with the participants of the sensor and phenomenon or stimulus. Such clauses, are uttered by the person as defendant or claimant, so they do not have verbal power in terms of discourse. The existence of evidence implies an existential process, and the only participant in this process is the existing element, so the first hypothesis is acceptable. The second question showed that the material process has the highest frequency. in this way the second hypothesis is rejected.  The conclusions demonstrated that the legal genre emphasizes the validity of the verdicts and the characteristics of each clause were included in order to take action and commutation, explain and comment the situation, express the facts and evidence in the crime scene, announce and request the verdicts. This was concluded because all process types are observed except for the behavioral processes. No such statement was found in such texts to indicate the external manifestations of the acts. The writing style of these texts shows, the documents and evidence are stated at first, then the verdict and judgment are written. Typically, the frequency of the material process demonstrated that the legal genre emphasizes the necessity of enforcing judgments and instructions rather than external behaviors. It also seems that there is a correlation between the type of processes and the circumstances’ elements. Since the circumstances’ elements which are more commutation and act, show the necessity of carrying out the sentences. In the legal genre of litigation, this circumstances’ element emphasizes the enforceability of judgments.

    Keywords: ideational metafunction, lawsuit, legal text, transitivity model