Journal of Geoconservation Research
Volume:4 Issue: 1, Winter-Spring 2021

The concept of the volume is to survey all the key geoparks throughout Europe in terms of their palaeontological significance. The first 25 articles in this Part cover the long span of geological time from the Precambrian to the Permian, arranged in chronostratigraphic order. These document some of the most important early stages in the history of life, from its origin to the devastation end-Permian mass extinction.

Together, places of scientific, historical or cultural significance within a region and the artefacts uncovered therefrom and displayed in museums and collections make up the total heritage of the region in question. Seemingly lifeless places and objects become enlivened in UNESCO geoparks through the combined efforts– geared towards education and tourism – of managers, researchers and professors, supported by conservation work and presentation arrangements. In geopark terms, these are geoeducation, geotourism and geoconservation, respectively. This special issue of Geoconservation Research is dedicated to a unique domain of geodiversity and natural heritage: fossils. Through their sheer variety of forms, beauty, and sometimes rarity, as well as by the facts of geobiological history to which they attest, fossils – these vestiges of past life – constitute the most attractive facet of ancient geodiversity. The 60 articles contained in the present volume present fossils found in UNESCO European geoparks through their scientific and cultural significance, through their importance to geoeducation and tourism, and through the geoconservation efforts expended on them. To highlight the continuous evolution of life forms, the articles are grouped into distinct chapters corresponding to the principal divisions of geological time. These contributions weave together scientific relevance with managerial skill and educational innovation at the geoparks, linked to the portrayal of fossils as an essential element of regional heritage, thereby outlining aspects of the Earth’s biological past and providing practical ideas.

The North West Highlands Geopark is probably one of the largest geoparks anywhere, comprising 2000 km2</sup> of remote, mountainous and coastal terrain. It was the first European Geopark to be recognised in Scotland in 2004 and was designated by UNESCO as a Global Geopark in 2015. Since then, it has been very successful in delivering projects to support sustainable community and economic development based on the region’s Geoheritage and giving informative introductions to the geology, wildlife, landscapes, and human heritage of the region. The geological importance resides in the incredible age of the Lewisian rocks, which are some of the most ancient in Europe, and the organic-walled microfossils of the Torridonian rocks, amongst the oldest evidence of life in the continent of Europe, and possibly the oldest evidence of complex (eukaryotic) non-marine life in the world.

Across the Ediacaran to Cambrian transition, some 541 Ma, the Earth's biosphere changed from one dominated by microbial organisms to one where multicellular organisms, including animals, rose to importance. Within a few tens of millions of years into the Cambrian Period an array of animal groups appeared, some extinct and others ancestral to modern groups, the Cambrian “explosion”. Two key elements were the appearance of biomineralized hard parts and the rise of animal disturbance of the sea floor (bioturbation), which continued into the great Ordovician biodiversification event (GOBE). These events are well documented in the Villuercas-Ibores-Jara UNESCO Global Geopark (UGG) by trace fossils, carbonaceous compression fossils and fossils of some of the earliest skeletonized animals record. Simple to more complex trace fossils are evidence of the “Cambrian substrate revolution”. Among carbonaceous compressions, sabelliditids provide evidence of tubular animals and vendotaenids possibly of algae. In addition, Villuercas-Ibores-Jara is the only UNESCO Global Geopark with Cloudina</em>, the first described and best-known of the pioneering organisms in the acquisition of skeletons.  Geosites, geological itineraries and interpretation centers in the geopark show visitors these exceptional fossils, including the holotype of Cloudina carinata</em>. Trace fossils, carbonaceous compression fossils and fossils of some of the earliest skeletonized animals witnesses these two events within the Villuercas-Ibores-Jara UNESCO Global Geopark. Simple to more complex trace fossils are evidence of the so called “Cambrian substrate revolution”. Among carbonaceous compressions, sabelliditids provide evidence of tubular animals and vendotaenids possibly of algae. In addition, Villuercas-Ibores-Jara is the only UNESCO Global Geopark with Cloudina, the first described and the most well known of the pioneering organisms in the acquisition of skeletons. Geosites, geological itineraries and interpretation centres in the geopark show the visitors these exceptional fossils, including the holotype of Cloudina carinata, which provide vivid evidence of time that marked the beginning of life on our planet as we know it today.

Some exceptional paleontological trilobite sites located in the Sierra Norte de Sevilla UNESCO Global Geopark are presented herein, together with an analysis of their geotourism / geotrail potential and a proposal for geoconservation. The sites are of Marianian age, a regional stage and age of the Cambrian Mediterranean Subprovince which was defined within the territory of the Geopark. This area constitutes the type area of six trilobite genera and twelve trilobite species and other associated faunas (hyolith, serpulid and echinoderm species).

Early Cambrian fossils sites of two Natural Monuments of the Sierra Norte de Sevilla Geopark are highlighted. The first of these shows archaeocyath and stromatolite bioconstructions at the Cerro del Hierro site, one of the most complete and best exposed in the European Cambrian record. The other exceptional setting is the Constantina site, which preserves about 90 discoid structures, which have been interpreted as ancient jellyfish. This site is one of the oldest and best-preserved soft-bodied biotas in the Cambrian record worldwide. Cerro del Hierro also has industrial heritage through its important mining history, which, together with its paleontological value, provides a series of routes that have made it the most visited tourist and educational site in the Geopark. Although the Constantine site is not yet ready to receive visitors, both sites have been proposed as International Geosites and therefore enjoy the maximum Spanish legal protection.

The Spanish Courel Mountains UNESCO Global Geopark has strong educational and touristic resources despite limited preservation of Paleozoic invertebrate fossil assemblages within metamorphic rocks. The paleontological sites are managed by means of their inventory and integration in a Geographical Information System, the construction of virtual 3D fossil models, the creation of a fossil collection exhibition, the transport of large boulders with fossils to places such as tourist offices, and hiking trails to see ichnofossils. To enable geoconservation, the Palaeozoic paleontological sites are neither promoted nor frequently visited. Fossils found in the Geopark by paleontologists and fortuitously by local people or hikers are deposited and safeguarded in the Geological Museum and are available for eventual exhibition and paleontological studies.

Penha Garcia Ichnological Park is the most important fossil site and one of the most significant geosites of international relevance, in the territory of Naturtejo UNESCO Global Geopark. This municipal protected area is a key site for the study of trace fossil diversity at high paleolatitudes in the early stages of the Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event. Most famous among 21 ichnotaxa is Cruziana</em>, interpreted as foraging burrows of trilobites, present in high abundance and excellent preservation. They are among the largest fossils found anywhere in the Lower Paleozoic, not uncommonly several meters long and over 20 cm wide, covering large bedding planes almost completely. The birthplace of Naturtejo Geopark is now a nature school, one of the most visited outdoor sites by schools in Portugal. It also became a reference for geotourism in this country because of the Fossil Trail that allows visitors to access a natural fossil art gallery in the Variscan-folded cliffs of the Ponsul Gorge. The Fossil Home provides the interpretation of the local geoheritage, and additional attractions are the Templar castle and church viewpoints, the climbing school, the secular watermills, the views over the lake in the heart of the syncline, and the Pego river pool. This is a major geotourism destination in the center of Portugal. The in situ conservation of fossils in this ‘outside museum’ is a challenging subject, which is being monitored using 3D high-resolution modeling of the whole gorge and the main fossil sites there to an mm-scale precision.

The Early Paleozoic oceans were generally characterized by short trophic chains and simple ecological tiering dominated by suspension-feeding organisms. However, the Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event (GOBE) was responsible for the complexification of food webs, increasing depth and diversity of substrate ecospace utilization and increasing benthic competition for resources near the water-substrate interface. Daedalus </em>is an enigmatic trace fossil that precedes this period of nearshore innovation and its disappearance is probably related to the escalation in tiering complexity, especially among benthic surficial feeders, that may have cut access to their main food sources. Daedalus</em> producers were responsible for the occupation of some of the earliest deep substrate tiers, probably feeding from particulate organics and meiofauna using complex architectures for resource exploitation. They were responsible for characteristic ichnofabrics that can be found, especially in Lower-to-Middle Ordovician sandstones, in the “Armorican Quartzite” and similar nearshore facies around Gondwana. Villuercas-Ibores-Jara and Naturtejo UNESCO Global Geopark show several geosites where the best-preserved forms of Daedalus</em> can be found and where its crowded ichnofabrics can be followed in large-scale exposures. Indeed, these are mega-ichnosites of international paleontological relevance for understanding behavior and ecospace utilization of a characteristic trace fossil during the GOBE. This paleoecological significance meant that Daedalus</em> became a symbol for a cross-border Interreg Project that connects the two UNESCO geoparks. The Armorican Quartzite Route</em> is an 800 km-long road following the main geological structures and promoting sustainable tourism attractions along the way. The Bridge over the Armorican Quartzite</em> has the goal of fostering sustainable development through common scientific and education tools, raising awareness of the GOBE as one of the most important events of biodiversification in the Earth history and a key element of the geological heritage of both UNESCO Geoparks.

Middle Ordovician successions occur at Naturtejo UNESCO Global Geopark in five Variscan-folded, kilometer- to tens of kilometer-long structures. Four of them revealed to be fossiliferous in the different recognized lithostratigraphic units, middle-to-uppermost Darriwilian in age, with particular emphasis for Brejo Fundeiro (Oretanian regional chronostratigraphic stage) and Fonte da Horta (Dobrotivian regional stage) formations. Recent paleontological and biostratigraphic works have detected most of the previously recorded and new fossil sites, improving the Middle Ordovician biostratigraphy of this region and updating the knowledge of its fossil assemblages, which are fairly more diverse than previously considered. The good preservation of the fossils and their relevance to understanding the climax of the Global Ordovician Diversification Event at high paleolatitude shallow marine environments, as well as the protection or identification of some of the fossil sites as UNESCO Geopark’ geosites, make certain their interpretation and use in already existing geotrails and new interpretation centers and school programs.

Naturtejo UNESCO Global Geopark (Portugal) area includes deposits from the Neoproterozoic to the Quaternary. Despite its limited exposure area in major Variscan folded structures, the Ordovician series hosts some of its most famous geological heritage features, such as the Penha Garcia Ichnological Park.  The Upper Ordovician of the Central Iberian Zone is still far from being as well-understood as it is in other areas. Extensional tectonics, magmatism, global eustatic and climatic changes generated a great variability of sequences in a reduced geographical area. The Upper Ordovician of the Naturtejo region, often considered poorly represented, is here demonstrated to have a great potential and to be more complete than previously assumed. New stratigraphic and paleontologic data are presented for the three Upper Ordovician-bearing structures within Naturtejo: Fajão-Muradal, Vila Velha de Ródão and Penha Garcia synclines. Remobilized upper Katian fossiliferous clasts were found for the first time within the Hirnantian Casal Carvalhal from the Fajão-Muradal Syncline and a new fossil site is added to the Orvalho GeoTrail. In the Vila Velha de Ródão Syncline, the Barroca da Senhora stream fossil site constitutes a new geosite within the protected area of Portas de Ródão Natural Monument, presenting the most complete Upper Ordovician sequence of this structure. Finally, the stratigraphic and paleontologic record of the Vale Feitoso estate offers all the conditions to propose a new theme geotrail, diversifying the tourism in the Monfortinho village (Penha Garcia Syncline).

Cruziana</em> is a common and widespread trace fossil in Lower Palaeozoic strata that is generally attributed to the activity of trilobites. The Lower to Middle Ordovician Armorican Quartzite Formation of southern Europe contains well-preserved examples of the Cruziana rugosa</em> Group. This paper outlines how Cruziana</em> forms an important part of the geological heritage in the Villuercas-Ibores-Jara UNESCO Global Geopark, Cáceres Province (SW Spain).

The giant Ordovician trilobites from the Canelas quarry constitute the most iconic sign of identity of the Arouca UNESCO Global Geopark at an international level. Palaeontological studies determined the importance of this fossil locality for studying aspects of the social behavior of these marine arthropods and their interactions with other represented invertebrate fossil groups. Although part of the famous ‘gigantism’ of the fossils represented in the slate quarry is due to tectonic expansion, which is responsible for one-third of the outstanding size of the fossils, there is no doubt that this locality, sometimes considered as a fossil lagerstätte, has a great scientific interest and represents a unique international reference among the geological heritage of Portugal. The construction of an on-site museum and the establishment of a geotrail around the quarry have turned this geosite into an example of cooperation between extractive industry, education, science and sustainable development. The formal partnership established with the AGA – Arouca Geopark Association reinforces the projection of this geosite, allowing its disclosure in exhibitions and educational programs, as well as the collaboration with the scientific community.

The Paleozoic succession of the Sierra Norte de Sevilla UNESCO Global Geopark (Ossa Morena Zone of the Iberian Massif, SW Spain) includes a nearly complete Silurian succession, ca. 150 m thick, deposited in an outer shelf setting. In the core part of the Valle syncline, the El Pintado-1 section exhibits a condensed graptolite-rich Silurian black-shale facies ranging from the base of the Rhuddanian to the upper Ludfordian. Most of the standard graptolite biozones of the Silurian System have been identified in the section. The preliminary record of Llandovery graptolites in the lower part of the succession comprises more than 200 species, 19 of them new. The El Pintado-1 geosite is of enormous value for the world’s palaeontological heritage, reinforced by the future placement here of the GSSP for the base of the Telychian Stage. The fragility of the site and its scientific importance mean that the section is not open to visitors to the Geopark, and its difficult accessibility also adds some protection, favoring its conservation beyond the regional legislative framework.

The Paleozoic succession in the Nevera inlier of the Molina-Alto Tajo UNESCO Global Geopark (Western Iberian Cordillera, NE Spain) includes an incomplete, richly fossiliferous Silurian succession, ca. 350‒400 m thick, at the locality of Checa, one of the geosites of international interest in the Paleozoic of Spain. The Checa section starts with quartzites (Los Puertos Formation: Rhuddanian to Aeronian) which rest unconformably on Late Ordovician glaciomarine diamictites (Orea Formation: Hirnantian) and are succeeded by graptolitic black shales (Bádenas Formation). The basal 60 m of the latter unit are of Telychian age and exhibit rich graptolite faunas of nine successive graptolite biozones and subzones, with more than 85 graptolite species identified of which four were new. Besides the scientific value of the fossil locality for paleontology and international correlation of the early Silurian, aspects of the promotion and preservation of its geological heritage have been enhanced by designation as a national and international geosite, as well as by the integration in a geo-trail for visitors to the park and the fencing of part of the fossil locality to avoid illegal digging and collecting.

The Black Country UNESCO Global Geopark, located in central England, joined the Global Geopark Network in July 2020. It is the most urban Geopark in the network with a population of approximately 1.1 million people. Located in an area rich in raw materials (Carboniferous coal, iron, and clay; Silurian limestone), it was quarried and mined extensively to fuel the Industrial Revolution. These activities created exposures which contributed greatly to the development of geoscience, including the establishment of the Silurian System. It also revealed and led to the collection of a rich and extremely well-preserved fossil fauna from the Upper Carboniferous and especially from the Silurian Much Wenlock Limestone Formation, with trilobites, crinoids, and numerous other taxa from the Geopark adorning museum collections across the world. Internationally important geological exposures, surviving within what is now an extremely urban and populated setting, provide a range of challenges and opportunities, and these continue to drive innovation and good practice in geoconservation, education and tourism within the geopark, where robust conservation and management of Geosites is combined with innovative ways to engage with local communities and visitors. UNESCO Global Geopark status will play an important role in opening doors to make the Black Country’s geoheritage, including its paleontology, accessible to many more people.

Shetland UNESCO Global Geopark encompasses a wide variety of well-exposed and accessible geological features. The combination of ocean floor remnants on top of ancient continental crust, a cross-section through a volcano, and evidence of earth movements is preserved nowhere else in the world and, individually, are some of the best examples known. Devonian rocks deposited on the resulting landscape contain fossil faunas – vertebrate, invertebrate and plant - representing an early terrestrial ecosystem, elements of which have been correlated to similar Devonian deposits across northeast Scotland. Today, the Shetland UNESCO Global Geopark is managed by the Shetland Amenity Trust with the involvement of many organisations on and beyond the islands to conserve and promote exposures of the various geological features, now and into the future.

The coral-rich limestones of the English Riviera UNESCO Global Geopark were an important component of the original definition of the Devonian System, introduced by Sedgwick and Murchison in 1840. They are, therefore, both a local highlight of the geological succession but have an important position within the history of geology. Formed in the tropical seas of the Middle Devonian, 10°S of the Equator, they also demonstrate the history of Devon in terms of Continental Drift and Plate Tectonics. Caves in these limestones provide an important record of both marine and terrestrial Pleistocene history, including some important hominin remains.

This paper introduces the Middle Devonian trilobites of Gerolstein, found on the famous trilobite fields of Gees and at the Auberg hill in Gerolstein. The research history and local geology of both sites are briefly discussed and key publications for further studies are provided. Owing to the early start of trilobite related research in the early 19th</sup> century, many trilobite taxa of high taxonomic value are described from the region, which later on became name-givers for higher taxa, e.g., families and even orders. The beautiful landscape and nature of Gerolstein, together with its rich geological and fossil heritage have been a magnet for early geotourism that started already in the 19th</sup> century and continues today. Guided or independent hiking, following the many hiking trails in the area, including the famous “Eifelsteig”, are the main attractions. Today, fossil collecting is not allowed in the area, but many fantastic fossil treasures including the famous Devonian trilobites and crinoids can be seen in the exhibitions of the Natural History Museum of Gerolstein. The museum has the task to preserve the geological and fossil heritage of the region. It provides guided tours through exhibitions and geological hikes in Gerolstein, and offers for children special geoeducational programs, tours and courses.

The Viar Basin, the largest of the Carboniferous basins in the Sierra Norte de Sevilla UNESCO Global Geopark, has yielded an important fossil flora. The flora is important stratigraphically and paleoecologically, and the collection sites have significant heritage value as they were studied by eminent geologists of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The sedimentary succession was deposited in a continental setting and the well-preserved floral remains include a varied fern flora with arborescent pecopterids as well as sphenopsids and pteridosperms. A key feature is the abundance of silicified conifer trunks, which include an almost complete specimen found in 2005, some 17 m in length and weighing 12 tonnes; this is one of the most complete specimens of this type in the European fossil record and constitutes one of the most emblematic fossils of the Geopark.

Piesberg quarry is famous for its Upper Carboniferous plant and arthropod fossils, including several holotypes of flying insects. The high degree of maturity of the Piesberg strata, such as the presence of anthracitic coal, quartzite, and large quartz crystals, led to controversies over a possible underlying thermal anomaly. The Piesberg is of further importance for correlation between the deep underground of northwestern Germany and the Ruhr basin coal field, as well as the Pennsylvanian coal areas in North America, and for investigations of Upper Carboniferous tight gas fields. The importance of the Piesberg for international geosciences has been enabled through its very rich mining history beginning in the Middle Ages and its long scientific history beginning at the end of the 18th</sup> century. Today, the Piesberg is not only one of the largest active quarry sites in Europe, but also a local recreation and hiking area. While the Museum am Schölerberg in Osnabrück protects its paleontological heritage through ongoing excavations and houses the world’s largest fossil and mineral collection from Piesberg, the UNESCO Global Geopark TERRA.vita and the city of Osnabrück conserve its geological heritage and promote environmental education through the Piesberg Cultural and Environmental Park. This paper highlights the international importance of the Piesberg by compiling its fossil record and paleoenvironmental interpretations. We also present preliminary data on new floral and faunal elements found in a recently discovered lake deposit. Further, the very rich mining history is briefly outlined and geoconservation and geotouristic measures are described.

The late Paleozoic deposits in several basins of the Bohemian Massif are well known for their rich abundance of petrified tree trunks. The area of the UNESCO Global Geopark Bohemian Paradise includes a substantial part of one of the largest ones, the Krkonoše Piedmont Basin. Deposits of this basin contain the most complete fossil record of petrified flora among all other coeval basins within the Czech Republic, and petrified stems are known from several stratigraphic levels. Well-preserved anatomical structures allow us to recognize various types of silicified plants. Recent studies identify calamitalean, fern, and various gymnosperm stems, as well as some other plant tissues inside petrified cherts. This paper provides a summary of research on petrified stems from the area and possibilities to use it for tourist and educational activities.

Carboniferous fossils from the Burren and Cliffs of Moher UNESCO Global Geopark, County Clare, Ireland are rated by their promotional potential in the form of celebrity A, B or C-listings. Trace fossils, crinoids, brachiopods, corals and vertebrates are the most exposed to public view at a number of high-profile visitor locations and the relative risk to the fossils to increased public exposure is assessed. The least abundant fossils, the vertebrates, have the highest promotional potential, while locally well-known trace fossils are also considered high potential. The invertebrates are of lower promotional value; however, that is changing with increasing public education. Currently, fossils get limited exposure on Geopark websites and social media platforms. The use of fossils to provide content to social media and other geotourism promotional material should be encouraged but requires a balance between the needs of geoconservation, scientific study and geotourism exploitation that requires selective use of fossils and careful promotional writing.

The Permian breccias, conglomerates and sandstones of the English Riviera UNESCO Global geopark were deposited in quite harsh, desert environments just north of the Permian Equator. Body fossil evidence is completely lacking but rare trace fossils provide evidence of a land-based community. There is a variety of traces present, probably indicative of the presence of a range of unknown animals. Though these animals cannot be identified, their occurrence is important in the understanding of the biodiversity of these Permian environments.

The Fossil Forest of the Aragoncillo Range is one of several paleontological sites of exceptional scientific value in the Sierra de Selas (Province of Guadalajara, central Spain). This shows an accumulation of silicified tree trunks along with well-preserved macro- and microflora of lower Permian age. This ancient forest, dominated by tree ferns and conifers, was destroyed by volcanic eruptions that took place in many continental areas at this time. This site is in the Molina-Alto Tajo UNESCO Global Geopark, but it is highly vulnerable and has suffered continued impact from plundering. The lack of implementation of legislation that guarantees its conservation does not allow interested visitors to enjoy the site and understand the characteristics of life and climate of such a unique ecosystem from this time in Earth history.

The iconic Kupferschiefer is a stratigraphic marker horizon of the Upper Permian in Northern and Central Europe, which is recognized internationally as a unique stratum because of its outstanding preservation of fish, reptile, and plant fossils. In the UNESCO Global Geopark TERRA.vita, Kupferschiefer fossils have been found at three tectonically uplifted elevations: Hüggel, Schafberg, and Piesberg. Here we review not only the Kupferschiefer fossil record of the Geopark, but also the paleontological excavations and environmental education programs that have been undertaken by the LWL Museum of Natural History in Münster, the local associations Museumsverein Hüggel e.V. and Kultur- und Verkehrsverein Hasbergen e.V. in Hasbergen, and the UNESCO Global Geopark TERRA.vita over the past 40 years. Particular emphasis is placed on the Hüggel hill, where the TERRA.track Geological Educational Trail has been set up to explain to visitors the high geodiversity and centuries-long mining history of the area. Furthermore, we provide comments on the future of the Geocenter in Hasbergen, where the Kupferschiefer fossils from Hüggel have been exhibited until 2018.

The iconic Kupferschiefer is a stratigraphic marker horizon of the Upper Permian in Northern and Central Europe, which is recognized internationally as a unique stratum because of its outstanding preservation of fish, reptile, and plant fossils. In the UNESCO Global Geopark TERRA.vita, Kupferschiefer fossils have been found at three tectonically uplifted elevations: Hüggel, Schafberg, and Piesberg. Here we review not only the Kupferschiefer fossil record of the Geopark, but also the paleontological excavations and environmental education programs that have been undertaken by the LWL Museum of Natural History in Münster, the local associations Museumsverein Hüggel e.V. and Kultur- und Verkehrsverein Hasbergen e.V. in Hasbergen, and the UNESCO Global Geopark TERRA.vita over the past 40 years. Particular emphasis is placed on the Hüggel hill, where the TERRA.track Geological Educational Trail has been set up to explain to visitors the high geodiversity and centuries-long mining history of the area. Furthermore, we provide comments on the future of the Geocenter in Hasbergen, where the Kupferschiefer fossils from Hüggel have been exhibited until 2018.