نشریه ادبیات تطبیقی
پیاپی 24 (بهار و تابستان 1400)

Meta-analytical approaches can provide researchers with the overall results of studies which share the same themes. Adopting such an approach in the field of comparative literature can inform and set directions for future research. In the present paper, more than forty-three articles with the shared theme of ‘mystical journey’ were studied and their findings were employed to create an interconnected network of comparative corpuses. This paper mainly aims at providing comparative researchers with new avenues of research in order to come to a more comprehensive conception of the mystical journey. Despite the significance of carrying out such studies, no one, as far as the researcher knows, has adopted a Meta-analytical approach in the field of comparative literature, especially on the issue of ‘mystical journey’. Therefore, the current study is quite novel and no previous study has dealt with the mentioned subject. The corpuses include Ardaviraf-nameh, the Devine Comedy (by Dante), Seirolebad Elalma’ad (by Sana’i), Mantiq ut-tayr (or ‘Conference of the Birds’ by Attar Neyshaburi), Jonathan Livingston Seagull (by Bach), the Little Black Fish (by Behrangi), and some other comparable works. After introducing the abovementioned works and the related comparable ones, finally, the novel and potentially comparable corpuses never worked on yet are introduced to the prospective researchers.

The present study is a descriptive one conducted on the basis of library research. The main approach of the current study is meta-analytical. In such studies, after the extraction of the overall results of the studies with the same theme, a meta-analytical content is provided for researchers. In fact, it deeply informs and sets directions for prospective researchers in the field of comparative literature. To carry out the research, more than one hundred and twenty-two handpicked books and articles were studied, and some parts of them, the analytical-descriptive data and the major findings of forty-three articles were directly adopted to be employed in the analytical formulation of the discussion sub-section of the current study.

In the first sub-section, Ardaviraf-nameh, the Divine Comedy, Seirolebad Elalma’ad and the comparable works were presented. In the next sub-section, Mantiq ut-tayr and other analogous works were analyzed. Finally, Jonathan Livingston Seagull, the Little Black Fish and other comparable works were analytically explored.   3.1. Ardaviraf-nameh and the comparable works Sadrzadeh (2002) in her article has comparatively analyzed four mystical journeys, namely Ardavirafnameh, the Divine Comedy, Royaye Sadeghe, and Resaleye Amorzesh. She has concluded that the common theme produced by the authors of the four works had been affected by the society wherein they lived. Ujaq Alizadeh (2007) in a paper entitled ‘the ladder of the mystical journey’ has referred to the study conducted by two great researchers who had evidently proved the inspiration of Dante in His writing of the Divine Comedy from Islamic resources, especially Me’rajnameh. Azar (2008) has proposed two works as the main inspiring resources for Dante: ‘Merjnameh of Prophet Mohammad (PBUH)’ and ‘Ardavirafnameh’. Mohammadi and Nazri (2008) in their joint article have referred to the similarities and differences between the two works: ‘Ardavirafnameh’ and ‘Resaleye Amorzesh’. Mentioning the similarities between ‘Ardavirafnameh’ and ‘Resaleye Amorzesh’, Amini Lari and Mirqaderi (2012) pointed out that Khayyâm (in composing his Robaiat), Dante (in writing his Divine Comedy) and Milton (in writing his Paradise Lost) have all been inspired by Resaleye Amorzesh. Hejazi (2010) is of the opinion that the similarities between the Divine Comedy and Seirolebad Elalma’ad lie in the fact that Dante had been familiar with a translation of Seirolebad Elalma’ad. Ziaoddini and Farrokhnia (2013) have comparatively studied Resaleye Amorzesh and Seirolebad Elalma’ad and found that both works are on the basis of Islamic-Mystical concepts, especially the Holy Qur’an.   3.2. Mantiq ut-tayr and other analogous works On the basis of what Foruzanfar (1970) has found in his research, Attar, in composing his Mantiq ut-tayr, had been inspired by Avicenna’s Resalato Altayr.  Noori and Beiranvand (2018) have made a comparison between the stories of birds in Mantiq ut-tayr and Ulysses in Homer's Odyssey and have referred to a lot common themes between the two stories. The researchers did not make any claim that Mantiq ut-tayr was inspired by Ulysses. Afrouz (2017) in his article has analytically compared the spiritual journey stages in the works of Attar and Schmitt. According to what the researcher has found, the hero in the two stories (i.e., Oscar and the Birds), are comparable. The reason behind such a similarity was found by Afrouz to be the religious background of the two authors. Salimi Kouchi and Ghassemi Isfahani (2020) have made an intertextual study of Mantiq ut-tayr’s seven stages of love in the man-trunk and his traveler by Andrée Chéd. The researchers have found that the themes of the two works are quite analogous. Mobarak and Hamani (2011) have pointed out that the Holy Qur’an was the main source of inspiration for Attar in his composing of Mantiq ut-tayr. The seven stages of mystical journey by Shikh-San’an in Mantiq ut-tayr is absolutely comparable with that which could be detected in the Surah of Joseph”. 3.3. Jonathan Livingston Seagull, the Little Black Fish and other comparable works Ghasemzadeh (2016) in his article has mixed the framework presented by Campbell with that of Pearson and Marr to analyze the journey of The Little Black Fish. Likewise, Abdollahzadeh Borzu and Reihani (2019b) have worked on the same corpus nd framework. The researchers’ finding indicated that the stage of ‘the return of the hero’ could not be detected in the Little Black Fish. According to the study conducted by Asghari, Abidinia and Tolooei Azar (2019) The Little Black Fish has its roots in classical Persian works such as ‘Kelile va Demneh’, ‘Marzbannameh’, and ‘Mantiq ut-tayr’. Coupa, Hejazi and Ghazanfari Moghaddam (2010) found that Bach’s Jonathan Livingston Seagull is somewhat similar to Mantiq ut-tayr. In the same vein, Mohammadi Badr and Ghazanfari Moghaddam (2012) pointed out that Bach’s work is an indirect adaptation of Attar’s masterpiece.  

In the present paper, the researcher adopted a meta-analytical approach to study more than forty-three articles which shared the same theme of ‘mystical journey’. The findings could be used in opening up new avenues of comparative studies for prospective researchers. Findings revealed that the works studied here were comparable due to the following criteria: accessibility to the translated works of other nations, adaptations, direct inspiration from the Sacred Scriptures, common religious background of mystical-journey-oriented works, and common concerns in presenting mystical-journey’s stages. The corpuses included Ardaviraf-nameh, the Devine Comedy, Seirolebad Elalma’ad, Mantiq ut-tayr, Jonathan Livingston Seagull, the Little Black Fish, and some other comparable works. In the following table, the potentially comparable works which are yet unsearched are presented. It should be noted that the factor of ‘time’ or ‘inspiration’ are overlooked and the symbol ‘~’ refers to ‘the collection of works comparable to that specific work’:            The Work (to be compared) Potentially Comparable Works The Work (to be compared) Potentially Comparable Works Mantiq ut-tayr Resalato-teyr; Resalato-toyur; Al-tavahhom; Ardaviraf-nameh; Odyssey; Paradise Lost; Seirolebad Elalma’ad; Enoch’s Dream Yoga Sutras Ala Tariqe Eram; the Pilgrim’s Progress; The Man-Trunk and His Traveler; Oscar and the Lady in Pink; The Parliament of Fowls; The Canterbury Tales; Mantiq ut-tayr ~ Ardaviraf-nameh the Pilgrim’s Progress; Ala Tariqe Eram;  Mantiq ut-tayr ~ The Man-Trunk and His Traveler Yoga Sutras ~ Resalato-toyur Ardaviraf-nameh ~ Oscar and the Lady in Pink Yoga Sutras ~ Resalato-teyr Ardaviraf-nameh ~ The parliament of Fowls Yoga Sutras ~ Seirolebad Elalma’ad Ardaviraf-nameh ~ The Canterbury Tales Yoga Sutras ~ Al-tavahhom Ardaviraf-nameh ~ Faust Siddhartha; Qur’anic Sura “Joseph” Enoch’s Dream Ardaviraf-nameh ~ the Little Black Fish the Little Prince; Mantiq ut-tayr ~ the Devine Comedy Ardaviraf-nameh ~ Jonathan Livingston Seagull The Fish Jumped over the Dragon Gate; Mantiq ut-tayr ~ the Pilgrim’s Progress Ardaviraf-nameh ~ the Little Prince the Little Black Fish; Jonathan Livingston Seagull ~ Ala Tariqe Eram Ardaviraf-nameh ~

1.Although the title name of "Adventures of Hajji Baba of Ispahan" juxtaposes with the name of James Morier, the original work belongs to an Iranian. Imitating the westerns, an Iranian immigrant had created his memoirs abroad and handed it in to Morier "to be published in the West" (Modarres Sadeghi, 2001, pp. 11-12). He had likely not added his name on the work to secure his life from the regime.     
Mirza Fathali Akhoundzadeh lived in Iran until his 15, then moved to Kafkaz, and all his life tried to inform the Iranian about the globe through literary narration.
 These two authors had some similarities and differences. The first was the thought school. The author of "The Adventures of Hajji Baba"was acquainted with the social and political life of Istanbule’s population and the Western nations and at the same time the cultural and civilization patterns of Iran. Akhoundzadeh; however, was under the influence of Russian poets, writers, and intellectuals and learned about the Western opinions through Russian language. He was not familiar with cultural and civilization patterns of the Iranian as much as the author of "The Adventures of Hajji Baba". Second, both of them believed in a change in the intellectualism of the Iranian despite they saw it from a different angle and gave different suggestions since they looked at Iran from different perspectives. Third, they both preferred humor and fiction to other styles in creating a change in Iran. And forth, for both of them the King is more of a nature than nurture; that is: a social premise at the head of an organization.
 
2.In this article, I have surveyed the similarities and differences between the two authors in thought, perspective, and the way of looking at Iran as well as reflecting the method of social, cultural, and religious situation in the nation. The methodology of surveying focuses on the details of the novels, analyzing them, and inferring the related conceptualizations.
 
3.In spite of differences, there are some typical similarities between the two works. Some of the most outstanding similarities are: 1. The description of the King: the Author of the Adventures of Hajji Baba looks at King from the perspective of ruling the nation, piety, and ethics. The king appeals to religion as a means to conserve the power. He considers for himself a position of divinity and suggests the lives and properties of his people his own belongings (see. Morier, 2001, PP. 130, 133-137, 139, 229-233, 263, 340, 349). Akhoundzadeh; however, does not realizes the king as much as the author of The Adventures of Hajji Baba; he only condemns the king’s divinity by describing him in clothing and the palace (see. Akhoundzadeh, 1977, PP. 426, 438). 2. Both of the authors give a variety of samples to illustrate the incompetency of government agents (see. Morier, 2001, PP. 20, 21, 25, 52, 188, 302-303, 340, 342; Akhoundzadeh, 1977, PP. 413-415, 445-446). 3. The authors both complain about the negligence of the law by the religious and state intellectuals. 4. Both of the authors realize maltreatment of religion and kinship ruling as the result of the king’s dictatorship and incompetency of his relatives (see. Morier, 2001, pp. 93, 355; Akhoundzadeh 1977; pp. 416, 450). Abusing the religion to accomplish nonreligious goals has been mentioned, in a bitter humor, several times in The Adventures of Hajji Baba. The author does not take religion as a social realm; he has rather a feeling for it and sympathizes for the real religious values. It is the same in the Deceived Stars; the real religious and conscientious people have no way to power pyramid. On the contrary, people who are aware of the position of religion in the community with the least knowledge may take the most advantages of it in achieving property and power. 5. For both of the authors, ethics diminishes as a result of dictatorship. They both have represented the downfall of ethical values because of widespread pretend, flattery, and libel. The frequency of ethical downfalls in the Deceived Stars is lesser than The Adventures of Hajji Baba. 6. Prevalence superstitions: in The Adventures of Hajji Baba, the regime’s members are negligent of their negligence. They do not expect developing schools as useful for the regime, and in religious learning they know nothing important except reading Koran. Medical science is only limited to which doctors. The Deceived Stars is mainly founded on a misbelief and then it is condemned. 7. Among the various traditions in Iran, both of the authors mention "Payandaz" (welcome reward) and condemn it (see. Morier, 2001, PP. 130, 140; Akhoundzadeh, 1977, p. 414). 8. Overcharging people: the author of The Adventures of Hajji Baba directly demonstrates samples of people’s oppression; in the Deceived Stars the samples are not presented as directly as The Adventures of Hajji Baba. The reader is to infer oppressions from the expressions and covert behaviors. 9. Portraying the women’s terrible condition: the author of The Adventures of Hajji Baba illustrates some examples of female conditions such as bigamy, involuntary marriage, purchasing and selling as servants, exchanging with stock, and opening Seegheh Khaneh (religious sex houses). To portray these terrible conditions, the Deceived Stars mentions involuntary marriage and divorce for women (see. Akhoundzadeh, 1977, pp. 429-430). 10. Both authors repeatedly talk about the people’s addiction to coffee, hubble bubble, and drugs (see. Morier, 2001, pp. 256, 277, 308, …; Akhoundzadeh, 1977, pp. 58, 433, 440).
Regardless of the similarities between the two works, there are some cultural affairs and traditions in The Adventures of Hajji Baba attributed to Iranians through humor and exaggeration that are not stated in Deceived Stars. A few of them are being discussed as follows:
the general prevalence of betrayal and lies: among every social class, there are people who are great liars and are quick at raising properties belonging to others.

  2.Fear and supplication: when facing with regime’s officers unreasonably reprimanding them, people usually have no choice except for supplication.

Habit of discrimination: discrimination is so widespread among occupation communities that even a barber can discriminate among his customers.

  4.Status appreciation: people appreciate status. They give big titles to those who occupy the position by stealing and lying and then bend in front of them accordingly.
  5.Extortion, bargaining, false swearing, theft and fainting in goods: exaggerating the price of the items and then discounting several times above the real price, swearing to deceive the customer, stealing and cheating in dealing are social habits in the community (see. Morier, 2001, pp. 89-90).
On the contrary, there are details in the Deceived Stars that are not present in The Adventures of Hajji Baba such as 1. the welfare needs of the community: constructing streets, bridges, caravanserai, hospital, school, well, welfare for the widow and orphans; 2. Economical, ethical, and scientific needs: distinguishing the knowledgeable from the pretending flattering knowledgeable, stopping the unreasonable interference of the custodians in religious affairs in the lives of the people, providing tuition fees for religious students, developing competent courts, providing support centers for the poor, closing the unlawful ways of extorting money from people, the necessity of employing Sadats (Children of the Prophet) in decent jobs to keep the face of the prophet’s children, focusing on capability in appointments, setting correct and transparent rules for the Court expenses, setting rules for tax collection, timely payment of the Army salaries, prohibiting usury, and so on.
 
4.Conclusion   
The author of "The Adventures of Hajji Baba" is most likely an Iranian, not Morier. This author has a relatively comprehensive knowledge of Iranian intellectual conditions and customs, culture, beliefs, psychological needs, occupations, economic situation, history, literature, relations of government institutions with the people, social oppression, lack of law and the like. He also became acquainted with the social life of the people of Istanbul and Europe, and especially their Pekarsk novels such as Gilles Blass. Comparing Iran, Istanbul, and Europe, he has written a Pekarsk novel, using humor and exaggeration to identify the flaws in the lives of Iranians. Akhundzadeh did not know as much about Iran as he did. Therefore, the works of these two have similarities and differences with each other, including: both identify incompetency of employees, kinship ruling in the power system, lack of law, lack of will to legislate the country in the ruling system, astonishing abuses of the glory of religion in society, prevalence of pretense , flattery, slander to others, superstitions, all kinds of injustices to the general public, addiction to Bang and vice versa, lack of production and will to change the status quo and lack of effort for public awareness and development of the country as the reasons for the differences between Iran and other countries . The author of "The Adventures of Hajji Baba" believes that there are magicians in Iran who penetrate the minds and psyche of the public and conquer their intellect. These magicians intensify vices such as betrayal, lies, fear of those in power, discrimination, etc., and worse, they prevent public awakening and, as a result, perpetuate the tyrannical system. Therefore, changing the current situation is a difficult task. This thinking has caused the satire of "The adventures of Hajji Baba" to be sharp and exaggerated, but Akhundzadeh is not so aware of Iranian society.

Comparative literature is a line of interdisciplinary research that studies the relationship between the literature of different nations. It examines the relationship between literature and other fields of knowledge such as arts. Due to its international, cultural and interdisciplinary nature, comparative literature has changed since its very beginning (Norblin et al., 2011, p.324).    Postmodernism is a complex socio-cultural movement, which is based on the critique of popular beliefs related to the Enlightenment Age. This movement can be witnessed in all domains. One of the most important authors of postmodernism is Jorge Luis Borges (1986-1899). His stories are tinged with various postmodern themes and techniques. Following the West, Iran also witnessed a new trend that can be roughly called modernism. This genre entered the fiction literature from the beginning of story writing in Iran. This trend continued in the 1940s. For instance, the Isfahan Circle became the host of writers such as Mohammad Hoghoughi, Houshang Golshiri, etc., all continuing and experimenting with the wave of modernism in various literary fields in their works. One of the most prominent figures was Houshang Golshiri (1316-1379), whose critiques, translations and writings of long and short stories are important works of postmodernism.

This study is a library research that uses descriptive-analytical approach to comparatively study the obtained data. From among various works of Borges, this research studied two, including The Library of Babel and the The Theme of Traitor and Hero. As for Golshiri's stories, Prince Ehtejab and The Night of Doubt were comparatively investigated for their postmodern components.

 In this research, three postmodern features (Indeterminacy, Pastiche and ontology) are examined in two works: The Night of Doubt and Prince Ehtejab by Golshiri, and The Library of Babel and The Theme of Traitor and Hero. 3.1. Indeterminacy In postmodern novels, uncertainty and indeterminacy could be observed in everything. Story characters are ambiguous. Stories have no clear-cut ending. They sometimes have multiple endings or sometimes an open ending. This uncertainty at the level of the narrative is so much that the ambiguity in the plot cannot be removed (Shamisa, 2012, p. 426; Lodge et al., 2007, p. 156). 3.1.1. Uncertainty in "The Night of Doubt"  The Night of Doubt is one of Golshiri's complicated stories and the best example of this category of his works. The story describes a group of friends who discuss the possibility of suicide by one of their friends, Mr. Salavati. They remember the last night with Salavati, and give contradictory remarks about that night and Salavati's suicide. No one is sure and does not agree with others ”(Atash’suda, 2009, p. 474). One instance of indeterminacy is the uncertain ending of the story in The Night of Doubt, where the reader’s encounter with the story ending has no definite result. 3.1.2 Indeterminacy in the "The Theme of Traitor and Hero " The author casts doubt on the location of a historical event, obscuring details that are very important in order to induce uncertainty to the reader from the very beginning. 3.2. Pastiche (Pastiche) Postmodern novelists use pastiche to produce a combination of writing styles. In other words, they change style attributes or use them erratically. The purpose is to emphasize the incoherent and heterogeneous content of the story (Payende, 2011, p. 40) 3.2.1. Pastiche in "Prince Ehtejab" One of the most obvious postmodern elements in the story of Prince Ehtejab is pastiche or adaptation. In Prince Ehtejab, Golshiri is strongly influenced by Sadegh Hedayat's Blind Owl, from its characters and features to the show scenes and motifs. 3.2.2. Pastiche in "The Library of Babel" Truth is the essence of a particular library or book. It gradually fades and expresses its despair of finding the truth in various ways. One way is converting library books into one another, without any certain rule or logic. 3.3 Ontology  In modern times, man recognized the world around him with all its ambiguities, thus he is living in an epistemological age. However, over time and after advancements in various fields of science, human beings became confused and could no longer know the world definitively. They could only think about the existence of changes and enter an period called post-cognitive or ontological era. 3-3-1-Ontology in "The Night of Doubt"  Golshiri uses various tweaks to change the interrelationships of different parts of the story. This changes the dominant element from cognitive to post-cognitive (ontological) problems. For example, in the story of The Night of Doubt, by putting together contradictory views and deliberately creating doubts about the possibility of Mr. Salavati's suicide, he imbued the story with enigma and mystery. Instead of relying on the available evidence, the characters use their imagination to judge and shift the possibility of knowing themselves and others towards the issue of existence (Golshiri, pp. 246-249). 3-3-2 - Ontology in "The Theme of Traitor and Hero" After years of reading and spending time in libraries, Borges failed to understand man and the world around him, which was a modern epistemological approach. "No one can reveal the direction of existence to anyone else," he said. Because it passes through man and we only see its reflection in words” (Ghanebasiri, 1999, p. 248).  

In this study, the postmodern components of indeterminacy, pastiche and ontology were investigated and compared in Golshiri's The Night of Doubt and Prince Ehtejab and Borges’ The Theme of Traitor and Hero and The Library of Babel. Although the research method is based on the American school of comparative literature (regardless of direct influence), after a comparative study of some of the works of the two authors, and given the reasons such as the presence of Golshiri as one of the main members of the Isfahan Circle in the 1940s and the presence of translators of Borges such as Ahmad Mir Alaei, Ahmad Golshiri and Ahmad Okhot, and their continued cooperation and later acquaintance and the publication of the article “I did not live to be another person” written by Golshiri and the similarities between some of Golshiri and Borges' works, we may conclude that Houshang Golshiri became acquainted with Borges and some of his works early in his professional activity and was influenced by them.

The long-term historical process that has led to the emergence of a new Western civilization and is today called modernity, has exposed all aspects of human life to change and revision, including the change of social structures and the transformation of the values ​​that govern these structures. One of the most important challenges in entering the modern world in the field of social structures and values ​​that have emerged from the beginning of this historical process and has gone through many ups and downs, regardless of the many conflicts that can be raised in many ways has been the subject of criticism of the patriarchal view that governs the structure and social values ​​of the traditional world and the demand for equal rights for men and women. After the acquaintance of oriental nations with Western modernity and under the influence of Western social developments, this demand was gradually formed among some intellectuals in Islamic and Asian countries, especially educated women and intellectuals, who were mainly poets and writers and led to the emergence of women's writing, including poetry and prose in the literature of these countries. Feminine writing has several components, one of which is the critique of various aspects of the patriarchal social system. Based on what has been mentioned, due to the many commonalities and similarities in cultural, historical and social fields and roots between the Iranian and Pakistani communities, including the traditional and religious interests and contexts along with the social movement towards development and modernity, It seems that women's poetry in Iran and Pakistan, despite slight differences, has many similarities in terms of reflecting women's issues and problems, as well as common feminine feelings and experiences. Therefore, this research tries to compare and analyze the issue of the critique of the patriarchal social system in the works of Simin Behbahani and Fahmida Riaz, two contemporary Iranian and Pakistani female poets, using a comparative approach. Accordingly, the present study is a report of methodical and scientific efforts in order to find answers to the following questions:- How is the critique of the patriarchal social system seen in the poetry of Fahmida Riaz and Simin Behbahani? - How can the similarities and differences of the critique of the patriarchal social system in the poetry of the two selected poets be analyzed?  

This is theoretical research based on written documents and sources, conducted in a descriptive-analytical method and with the approach of sociology of literature has studied the critique of the patriarchal social system in a comparative way in the poetry of Simin Behbahani and Fahmida Riaz. 

In a patriarchal society, a man is a first-class citizen and a woman a second-class one. The context, time, and society in which Simin Behbahani and Fahmida Riaz live are also patriarchal societies, which due to gender discrimination in the social and value system, not only  dismiss a large portion of women's inalienable rights, but also they unintentionally and unjustly impose many problems and difficulties on them. In the following sections, the researchers will review and analyze some of these issues that are reflected in the works of these two Iranian and Pakistani poets. Simin Behbehani In a patriarchal social structure which is based on the superiority of the male sex, women lack originality and are merely a means of meeting the needs of the superior sex, i.e., women are the means of sexual satisfaction for men. For this reason, in women's writings, this instrumentalistic view of women, which is the result of a patriarchal social structure, is always criticized. Simin Behbahani tells the story of a man who sees a woman merely as a sexual commodity in the poem "Vasteh". Besides this poem, Behbahani in another poem called "The Dancer" narrates the lust of men in a seemingly open society, whose leaders are in the pursuit of modernization and call it the gate of their civilization. Behbahani believes that in a patriarchal society, all forms of freedom have been taken away from women in the name of tradition or under the pretext of modernity. Just as the dancer is trapped in the circle of men's asceticism in the name of freedom and the housewife is also forced to stay home and avoid socialization. In the poem "Zan dar Zindan-e Tala" (Woman in the Gold Prison), Simin complains about the forced residence of  the contemporary Iranian woman in the gold palace, without authority, freedom and independence. Other issues that provoke Simin Behbahani's social critique are polygamy and the right of men to divorce, along with various manifestations of male violence and its social consequences, such as, sexual and physical violence, abandonment of children and evasion of responsibility towards the family, as well as forcing girls into marriage, and above all, confronting women not from the perspective of the human element but as a means of men’s satisfaction and reproduction are the most important social problems of women in the patriarchal society of Iran, which are usually depicted in the form of often long poems, with a large number of verses and in a narrative tone and atmosphere. Poems that include such themes in Simin Behbahani’s collection of works, include poems such as Fe’l-e Majhool (The Passive verb), Ilkhan Sitareh-ha (the Ilkhan of the stars), Jibb Bor (the pickpocket), Dard-e Niaz (the pain of need), Anja wa Eenja (here and there), Khoon-e Sabz (green blood), Zarkhrid (Bought), etc., in general her poetic works, such as Jay-e pa (Footprint, 1954), Chelcheragh (Chandelier, 1955), Marmar (Marble, 1961), Rastakhiz (Resurrection, 1971), Khati ze Sor’at va Atash (A Line of Speed and Fire,1980), Dasht-e Arzhan (The Plain of Arzan,1983), Kaghazin Jameh (Paper-Thin Vestment, 1989), Yek Daricheh-e Azadi (A Window to Freedom, 1995) and Tazeh-ha (The Latest, 2008) are scattered. Although the origins of Behbahani's critique of the patriarchal social system and the patriarchal values that govern Iranian society can be attributed to the feminist ideas, but certainly, this feminism is by no means anti-male and extremist and has a perfectly rational, moderate and balanced basis. Fahmida Riaz Fahmida Riaz is also one of the poets who has paid attention to the issues and problems arising from the patriarchal social system for Pakistani women, and this issue is one of the central discourses in the works and especially the poems of this famous Pakistani poet. Fahmida Riaz was born on July 28, 1946, in the city of Meerut. Fahmida grew up in Hyderabad (Pakistan) and her father died when she was 4 years old. During her school years (1960), she composed her first poem and published it in "Fonoon" magazine (Mari, 2004, pp. 14-15). Fahmida got married in 1965, and after marriage, she went to England and published the book Badan Darideh (The Torn Body) (1973) there. She returned to Pakistan a few years later from the United Kingdom and served for some time as the chairman of the National Book Council in Islamabad. When General Zia-ul-Haq came to power, he realized that she was the director of the literary magazine "Avaz". The military government did not come to terms with her and she went to India for several years and did not return until General Zia-ul-Haq was alive (Shams ul-Haqq, 2008, p. 381). Fahmida Riaz, in addition to being a poet, was also a prose writer and translator, and some of her prose works include Karachi, Goodwari, Tem Kabir, Zindeh Bahar, etc. Fahmida Riaz's translations are often from the masterpieces of the world poetry in Urdu (poetry and prose), one of which is Kohli Darichi si (from the open window), a translation of selected poems by Forough Farrokhzad, an Iranian Persian poet. In essence, this expresses the poet's belonging and her acquaintance with the living and dynamic corpus of contemporary Persian poetry (Riaz, 1998, pp. 2-3). She has another book called Ye Khaneh Ab va Gel (This House of Water and Mud), which is a poetic translation of selected lyric poems of Divan Shams-e Tabrizi and indicates his familiarity with classical Iranian literature (Rumi, 2006, pp. 1-2). Shadiani is a story that has been translated into Urdu prose by Fahmida Riaz and this Novel is from the Egyptian Najib Mahfouz who won a Nobel Prize (Mahfouz, 2000, p. 2). Apart from these, she wrote stories such as Qaleh Framosh, Adhora Adami, Halqa meri Zanjir ka, Apna Jurm Sabit hey etc. Fahmida Riaz died on November 21, 2018. Although Riaz has made a critique of the patriarchal social system in the context of the tradition of its prestige, she has not neglected the imposition of new problems on women, such as freedom. These problems, which sometimes occur in Eastern societies, are doubly severe in political regimes with a capitalist approach, like the United States or France, which is seen as the origin of democracy (Sarvarian, 2004, p. 302). Denying the physical and mental abilities of women and limiting their social function to physical characteristics is one of the topics of concern for Riaz and the poem "The Beauty Contest" is a strong protest against the behaviour in which the female body has become the subject of writers, poets and artists. This poem is about beautiful girls who participate in the beauty contest and there, just by appearance and physical criteria, a worthy girl is selected from the point of view of men. The poem "Chador and Chardivari" is one of the most important poems of Riaz regarding women's issues in the patriarchal social system, which has addressed various issues in this regard. Part of this poem depicts the oppression of men and their cruel domination over women who have been exploited and sometimes sexually abused for low wages. Fahmida Riaz describes the captivity of women in the poem "smile of a woman" and so it challenges the idols of the new temple, which are international symbols and demands peace from them. The poem "Chador and Chahardivari" tells the story of a woman who is forced to wear a hijab to cover herself. But the woman, who is a symbol of the poet herself, cleverly points to more important social priorities and points out the poverty of the society to the rulers. And ironically, he asks them to first bury the shrouded dead who have been left on the ground by the pressure of poverty. In another layer of this poem, the corpse can be considered a symbol of women who in the house of fanatical men have the status of the moving dead who need to be covered more than others. Other issues such as polygamy of men, types of verbal, physical and psychological violence, forced marriage and social inequalities are other social problems of women in Pakistani society that Fahmida Riaz in its poetic works,  like Pathar ki Zaban (Stone Language, 1967), Badan Daridah (the Torn Body, 1973), Dohup (Sunshine, 1976), Kia Tum Pura Chand Na Dikhu Gay (Will You Not See the Full Moon, 1984), Hamarkab (Travel companion, 1988), Admi ki Zindigi (Human Life, 1999), Kulyat-e Fahmida Riaz Sab Lal o Gowhar (Generalities of Riaz called Sab Lal and Gowhar, 2011) have been criticized. 

The results of the present study on the critique of the patriarchal social system in the poetry of Simin Behbahani and Fahmida Riaz are as follows:- One of the important topics and discourses in the poetry of Simin Behbahani and Fahmida Riaz is the critique of the patriarchal social system and the moral and social values ​​that govern it and the confrontation with the violation of some social rights of women in Iranian and Pakistani society; - Due to cultural, historical, religious, social, etc. commonalities that exist between Iran and Pakistan ​- topics related to the subject of this research were often in common in the works of both poets and were often expressed in a common style (narrative style); - Although Fahmida Riaz is known as one of the activists of the women's social movement in Pakistan, neither of the two mentioned poets - based on their poetic works - can be considered a feminist poet in its radical and even liberal sense, because the criticisms expressed in their poetry are completely humane and respectful of men while recognizing their rights and they are sometimes accompanied by a critique of the values ​​that govern the liberal-democratic discourse of the New World. - Simin Behbahani's social criticisms are more superficial, emotional and soft, but Fahmida Riaz's critiques are deep, thoughtful, sharp and reckless, with political connotations and critiques of the ruling power; - Despite the many thematic similarities in the critique of the patriarchal social system in the works of the two selected poets, the influence of Fahmida Riaz on Simin Behbahani seems very unlikely. But, Fahmida Riaz's influence from Simin Behbahani, due to her fluency in Persian language, complete familiarity with classical Persian poetry and interest in contemporary Iranian poetry, as seen in the introduction of her translations of Shams lyric poems and Forough Farrokhzad's poems in Urdu, is quite probable.

Comparative literature is a new branch in literary research, which has an unbreakable bond with topics like literary criticism, textual criticism, and investigation of the purpose of speech in the prominent works of different nations. This phenomenon was put forth almost two centuries ago in France which was then followed by Germany, Japan, and the United States of America. This kind of research was conducted in Iran in the 14th century A.H. for the first time, when the University of Tehran was founded. Different articles and works in various fields such as epic, mystical, lyrical, were published in the form of poetry or prose in Persian, Arabic, French, English and other languages. Comparative research is of paramount importance since the authors and audience of such works would get a deeper cultural understanding, and as a result of the expansion of such research, different morals such as conciliation, and peace, restraint from bigotry and prejudice would govern sociocultural relations. Therefore, considering the present status of our planet and its military and political challenges, contrastive works can help bring cultures and nations closer together and establish permanent peace.

The present study has tried to contrastively investigate several fundamental lines of thought between Hafiz and Tolle based on the theory of ‘peak experience’ and according to the different readings of Hafiz’s poems and Tolle’s works and the similarities of thought between them.

The Divan of Hafiz is certainly one of the most cryptic written world heritages. The more one dives into it, the more unknown aspects will emerge. This is, in fact, a kind of text in which the fate of man is reflected. The eloquence and the style of the text attracts different types of audience. Hafiz has always had a certain place in the minds of all Persians as well as other literary readers in such a way that those who read Hafiz try to look for themselves in his Divan. This splendid literary text has great capacity for comparative research, a fact which has resulted in writing many books and articles in this regard. On the other side, the prominent German writer, Eckhart Tolle, who, as a result of a spiritual evolution, has found acuity and new knowledge about himself as well as the world, and who has also created concise works which have been translated into other languages and attracted much audience around the world, has thoughts and perspectives similar to those of Hafiz. The present study, therefore, has tried to contrastively investigate and analyze the concise sayings of Hafiz and Tolle based on the theory of peak experience which some people have gone through and found new knowledge perspectives. Among the similar topics in Hafiz’s poems and Tolle’s works, adoring or worshiping the nature, conciliation and tolerance, self-denial, transient turns of the universe, and living in the moment have been investigated in the present research. This study has tried to prove, through peak experience theory, that the two intellectuals have had similar viewpoints towards the phenomenon of existence and knowledge of oneself despite the different times they were in.

Hafiz wrote about the ups and downs of man’s fate and his desires and limitations in an intellectual way. One of the most fundamental thoughts of Hafiz was his love of man and his open-mindedness towards man’s freedom. By adoring or worshiping the beauties of nature, and also by looking thoughtfully at those beauties, Hafiz tried to change the man’s mind and knowledge, and draw up a new plan to make a man in possession of tolerance and conciliation. In a similar fashion, Tolle tells of a new land and highlights the purification of thought or catharsis. The two intellectual have tried to sketch a new plan based on munificence, respect, and friendship of all mankind. It seems that humanism, gentility, and respecting others’ rights irrespective of the race, color, religion, etc., has been one fundamental concern of Hafiz and Tolle. Based on the relationship between self-actualized people and peak experience, and based on the findings of the present study, Hafiz and Tolle have reached high levels of acuity and self-knowledge as two philanthropic intellectuals and have expressed their personal experience in the form of concise, meaningful, and wise sayings and poems. The concise poems of Hafiz which are also referred to a ‘subtle-poems’ can be compared to those of Tolle which are known as “sutras”. The common message of Hafiz’s poems and Tolle’s sayings is reaching inner peace, self-acceptance, and reconciling oneself and the universe.

As a literary technique, hybridization seeks to break the tradition of marriage within the family of words and the creation of new networks of companionship. It has a significant role in the beauty and structural coherence of literary texts. Since words lose their effectiveness due to constant association with each other, by deviating from the norms governing the standard language, words can be selected from one family and placed next to other families to highlight literature, open a new horizon, and affect the audience. This literary device became popular in literature via Saint-John Perse, the eminent French poet (1887-1975), in the works of other contemporary Iranian and Arab poets. Before him, however, the Russian theorist Mikhail Bakhtin had laid the foundations of hybridization by proposing polyphony and monophony theory in fiction. Among the poets who are influenced by this literary technique; Shāmloo and Adūnīs can be mentioned. The two poets have a relatively similar worldview due to their almost common social and political conditions.

Conducted via a descriptive-analytical research method, the present study aims to examine the aesthetic dimension of this literary technique and its implications and effectiveness by examining the use of hybridization in Adūnīs’s and Shāmloo’s poetry, which has led to the departure of the language of their poems from the standards of natural language. This article is an attempt to comparatively study Adūnīs’ and Shāmloo’s poetry for introducing them to the reader, and to answer the following questions: 1- What is the use of hybridization in the two poets’ poetry? 2- What are the implications of this literary device in the two poets’ poetry?

One of the techniques of "pretending to be familiar with familiar things" (Shafi'i Kadkani, 2013, p. 308) is hybridization via which words from a family are combined with a new language family, creating a kind of new poetic language. Among the poets who have been influenced by the Perse and who tried this literary technique are Shāmloo and Adūnīs. Part of hybridization in Shāmloo’s and Adūnīs’ poetry arises from the fusion of words from the family of music with the family of nature. Shāmloo takes the word "symphony" from the world of music and the word "night" from nature, and by combining them in “the sunset of the Siahrud River”, he creates the following combination: Symphony of the night drips / quiet / over the evening’ sadness (Shāmloo, 2004, p. 326). In this poem, Shāmloo highlights the composition (symphony of the night) by quoting the verb dripping and has also become unfamiliar with the verb dripping. The combination of the word “symphony” with “night” evokes the pleasant feeling of being in unison with the calm of the night. Since the word night alone is devoid of such a meaning, the poet gives it a new meaning by using the technique of hybridization. This has also led to lexical and semantic aberrations in the form of similes. In an atmosphere of emotional resemblance to Shāmloo, Adūnīs also combines the word “bell” from the family of music with the word “night” from the network of nature in the poem “the Divine Wolf”: The morning is burning and displaced / And I am the death of the moon / Under my face the bell (song) of the night breaks / And I am the new wolf of inspiration (Adūnīs, 1996, Vol. 1, p. 227). In the hybridization of night and bell, it is a kind of lexical aberration in the companionship axis, which creates a new combination of clichéd words in the form of simile and has led to semantic aberration, indicating signs of darkness and sorrow. The linguistic-grammatical network and the nature network are other networks that promote the poems of these two poets. Concerning this network, Shāmloo chooses the word syllable from the system of language and the wave from the network of nature in his poem “the anthem of the one who left and the one who remained” and uses hybridization as follows: In the darkness of the salty beach / We listened to the repeated syllables of the wave (Shāmloo, 2004: 550). The metaphorical hybridization of repeated syllable of the wave prepares the ground for lexical and semantic aberrations. Using repeated adjectives, the poet emphasizes the fluidity and movement of the waves, and by adding a wave to the syllable, he de-familiarizes the verb to listen. The wave alone has no meaning, but it is meaningful in terms of the poet's intention when it is put in a hybridization. In the surrealist atmosphere of the poem “limbo”, Adūnīs combines the word abjadiyyat (alphabets) with the word stars and creates a metaphorical combination of the merging of these two different linguistic families as follows: I was returned/My body is a gentle book/ The alphabet of stars and clouds wrote it/ My body moves towards the light at night and the bodies are galaxies (Adūnīs, 1996, Vol. 2, p. 370). The attribution of the word abjadiyyat (alphabet) to stars is because the body of the poet in limbo is a hybridization of the book of deeds and a galaxy of the results of those deeds. So the alphabet of the stars must be its writer. Because the poet considers his body to be a combination of books and galaxies, the hybridization of the alphabet of the stars, which are in complete harmony with these two, is necessary. This hybridization leads to the formation of such repetitive words in the form of similes, lexical, and semantic aberrations, as well as de-familiarization with the act of writing and highlighting this practice. The network of the supernatural and the network of nature are other networks that promote their poems. To express his feelings towards the beloved, Shāmloo in the poem (the sixth hymn) takes the tree from the family of nature and the miracle from the other side, and by mixing the two, the garments of the following are covered on it: I am not a miracle tree / only one of my trees (Shāmloo, 2004: 1036) Shāmloo is a tree like other ones and that tree is not the expected miracle. The hybridization of a miracle tree is a composition in the form of the past tense. Although the word tree and the concept of miracle go back to different language families, since the tree has long had a special and sacred place in mythology; therefore, the choice of these two families with obvious differences in networks is defensible in terms of communication. It has the poet’s intention of rejecting the expectation of something extraordinary from him. Adūnīs, like Shāmloo in his poem The Land of Magic, chooses the words earth and magic from different families, preparing such a capacity to express his feelings: And my land is constantly a land of magic / I confuse the air / I injure the face of the water / I go out of my house to the sea. (Adūnīs, 1996, vol. 1, p. 188). In this poem, Adūnīs wears the mask of an adventurous Sinbad and goes to war only with the unhealthy social conditions, to achieve his utopia. The poet is not disappointed; because his land, like the land of magic, announces unexpected events. The use of this eloquent combination in the noun phrase, which implies continuity, and the use of the verb (لم تزل: continuous) is a double emphasis on the expectation of being extraordinary from the poet's land. The network of religion and the network of nature is also one of the networks considered by the two poets. As Shāmloo chooses the word Sajjadeh (prayer rug) from the family of religion and soil from the words of nature in the poem "Rainy Design" and by combining them, he creates such works of art: Then / the holy silence of the sun setting on the soil prayer rug, / and the heavy hesitation of the bloody knife (Shāmloo, 2004, p. 1003). The poet believes in the sanctity of the sun and the earth; therefore, the composition of the soil prayer rug, which is a favorably compound in the form of simile, has created lexical and semantic aberrations. Despite the apparent distance of these two words in terms of lexical family and semantic infrastructure, since "in many languages, it is called the human being of the earth" (Eliade, 1996, p. 168). Accordingly, in terms of the concept of sacredness between the prayer rug and the soil is remarkable. In his poem “dream”, Adūnīs mentions the glorious past of the Arab countries with longing, remembering the past. Hybridization in this section, by combining the words of Surah and verse from religion and the words of cloud and stone from the family of nature, expresses the concepts intended by the poet. I entered the religious ceremonies of the Caliph / The womb of the waters and the sedition of the tree / I saw the trees that want me / And I saw rooms between its branches / And the boards and the windows are hostile to me / And I saw children for whom I recited / I heard, I recited for them / verses of the cloud and the verse of the stone (Adūnīs, 1996, Vol. 1, pp. 262-263). At this time, referring to the customs of the caliphate, Adonis called the seditions of that period the sedition of the tree. The trees of sedition, amid their foliage, are terrifying rooms. But inside these horrible rooms, there are clean and good children who are ready to receive the truth; Therefore, the poet recites for them verses of the cloud and verses of stone. Hybridization of verses of cloud and verse of stone indicate the sacredness of the elements of nature that the poet in the form of similes of two different language families to better convey their intended concepts, and thus he uses repetitive words for lexical and semantic aberrations.

Part of the literary value of the poetry of these two poets, from the point of view of novel verbal knowledge, depends on the use of hybridization networks. The same tendency towards hybridization-like combinations has increased the frequency of use of metaphorical arrays in their poetry. Accordingly, in addition to lexical anomalies, it has also caused semantic anomalies. Sometimes the second word in these combinations, due to being in the compound, de-familiarizes the verb of that sentence. These favorably combinations serve the other components of the text. The similarity of lexical families in the poetry of the two poets, which is sometimes expressed in complete similarity in words, is due to the similar intellectual realms of the two poets. The creative minds of the two poets, by adhering to nature, often choose one of their favored combinations from nature. Therefore, in this study, the hybridization of music, vocabulary, religion, and transcendental networks with the network of nature in the poetry of two poets was studied as one of the commonalities.

Tsurezuregusa (Essays in Idleness) is a Japanese didactic  book written in the 14th century, 80 years, after  appearance of Gulistan, (Rose Garden), the masterpiece of Iranian poet and writer, Muslihaldin Sa’adi Shirazi,  and has a strong resemblance both in content and structure with Gulistan. Kenko Yoshida , the author of Essays in Idleness, was a poet and writer who unlike  Sa’adi, had the life of a recluse, and retired  himself as a Buddhist monk, from  the public life. Although Sa’adi was a writer and poet who had trained in the School of Quran and Islamic wisdom and Yoshida was a believer of Buddhist mysticism, their attitude toward the world was quite similar.  Even so, Sa’adi’ s work, is far superior to Yoshida’s, from an aesthetic and rhetorical point of view. Warning about the instability of the world, the preciousness of contentment and importance of dignity in the old age are the common themes of two books. From a structural point of view, they are also similar; for example, both have used poems within prose as  a structural feature and both consist of narrative pieces.   

This paper is based on the comparative study method in order to evaluate the content and aesthetic features of the two mentioned books and to determine the similarities and differences between elements within them. for this purpose, the researchers have tried, at first, to find elements within the two books that have some type of similarity, such as common themes. Then, the researchers have attempted to answer the following questions:  1) Had Yoshida been familiar with Sa’adi ‘s book and inspired by it? 2) Are the similarities between the two books made completely by coincidence?  

Gulistan (Rose Garden) is widely regarded as a landmark of Persian literature and one of its most influential prose works. Written in 1258, it is one of the two of Saadi’s major works, which has been proved deeply influential in both the West and the East. Structured as a collection of poems and stories (metaphorically as different types of roses), the text features minimalist plots, expressed with precise language and psychological insight. It explores the many issues and tribulations faced by humankind, employing both an optimistic and a subtly satirical tone. The book is divided into an introduction and eight chapters, each dealing with a specific subject:   chapter 1: Of the Customs of Kings        chapter 2: Of the Morals of Dervishes chapter3: On the Preciousness of Contentment      chapter 4:  On the Benefit of Being Silent chapter5 :  On Love and Youth  chapter 6: Of Imbecility and Old Age  chapter 7: Of the Impressions of Education    chapter 8: Of the Duties of Society    These chapters are composed of disjointed paragraphs, generally beginning with an aphorism or an anecdote and closing with an original poem of a few lines. Sometimes, these paragraphs are altogether lyrical. We are struck, first of all, by the personal characteristics of these paragraphs; many of them relate to the experience of the poet in some part of his travels, expressing his comment upon what he had seen and heard. His comments generally take the form of practical wisdom, or religious suggestion. He gives us the impression that he knows life and the human heart thoroughly.  On the other hand, Essays in Idleness is one of the classics in Japanese Literature, and is much read as a text book in Japanese schools. The original title of the book is derived from the opening word of the text ,Tsurezure (leisure) and Gusa, a compound variant of kusa, which means “grass”, a word sometimes used to designate anything not quite finished up, raw and rough as it were. Contrary to Sa’adi’s Gulistan, Tsurezuregusa does not have a precise order, although Yoshida had tried to separate the subjects of his book into sections, the book is, in fact, a collection of treatises on miscellaneous subjects written by a fourteenth century priest. these subjects are,  of course, very similar to Sa’adi’s Gulistan; for example, in  section 18 of the book, Yoshida notes:    “It is best  for a man to  be thrifty, to shrink from luxuries, not to accumulate great wealth, and not to covet the whole world. The great men of ancient times were seldom rich” (Yoshida, 1914, pp. 20-21). “In China once there was a man named Xu You, who owned nothing and even drank directly from his cupped hands. Seeing this, someone gave him a ‘singing gourd’ to use as a cup; he hung it in a tree, but when he heard it singing in the wind one day he threw it away, annoyed by the noise it made, and went back to drinking his water from his hands. What a free, pure spirit!” (Yoshida, 2001).  Sa’adi  in  chapter 3 of Gulistan (On the Preciousness of Contentment) narrates a story with a similar theme as below:“A mendicant from the west of Africa had taken his station amidst a group of shopkeepers at Aleppo, and was saying: “O lords of plenty! had ye a just sense of equity, and we of contentment, all manner of importunity would cease in this world!” O contentment! do thou make me rich, for without thee there is no wealth. The treasure of patience was the choice of Lucman. Whoever has no patience has no wisdom ” (Sa’adi, 2019).  On the Morals of Dervishes, Yoshida says:“Commendable is the man who, overwhelmed by calamity and sorrow, shaves his head but not because of some silly whim of his own. shuts his door so that none may know whether he is within or not, and lives from break of day to set of sun without any human desires ” ( Yoshida, 1914, p. 12). Similar to this, is the following story in Gulistan:   “They tell a story of an abid, who in the course of a night would eat ten mans, or pounds, of food, and in his devotions repeat the whole Koran before morning. A good and holy man heard this, and said, “Had he eaten half a loaf of bread, and gone to sleep, he would have done a more meritorious act.” Keep thy inside unencumbered with victuals, that the light of good works may shine within thee; but thou art void of wisdom and knowledge, because thou art filled up to the nose with food” (Sa’adi, 2019).  In section 51, Yoshida emphasizes the importance of hiring skilled persons for momentous jobs “A farmer of Oi was order to arrange a water – supply from the Oi River for the pond of the Kameyama Palace; so he constructed a water-wheel. He spend much money and worked hard for several at it, but there was something wrong with it and it would not go round. He tried all sorts of alterations, but as it still would not revolve he had at last to give it up. Thereupon a villager from Uji was sent for, who easily   fastened it and put it right, so that it revolved as it should have done and delivered the water satisfactorily. It is best in every case to employ those who are proficient at the business” (Yoshida, 1914, pp. 44-45). There is a similar story in Gulistan: “A fellow had a complaint in his eyes, and went to a horse-doctor, saying: “Prescribe something for me.” The doctor of horses applied to his eyes what he was in the habit of applying to the eyes of quadrupeds, and the man got blind. They carried their complaint before the hakim, or judge. He decreed: “This man has no redress, for had he not been an ass he would not have applied to a horse or ass doctor!” The moral of this apologue is, that whoever doth employ an inexperienced person on an affair of importance, besides being brought to shame, he will incur from the wise the imputation of a weak mind. A prudent man, with an enlightened understanding, entrusts not affairs of consequence to one of mean capacity. The plaiter of mats, notwithstanding he be a weaver, they would not employ in a silk manufactory” (Sa’adi). Regardless of the thematic similarities, Sa’adi  has used a  better artistic form  for  his stories. The plots of his stories are subtly and skillfully and fascinate the readers completely.in contrast, most of Yoshida’s stories, have poor plots.  Employing an optimistic and a subtly satirical tone are the other valuable features of Sa’adi’s stories.

Gulistan (Rose Garden), the masterpiece of the great Iranian poet and writer , Saadi Shirazi, has an astonishing resemblance to Tsurezuregusa (Essays in Idleness). In our view, Yoshida, as a reclusive Buddhist monk, had not been familiar with Gulistan, and  so the issue of plagiarism or adaptation is completely  ruled out. Then, why these two books are so similar? And because of this amazing similarity, it called “Japanese Gulistan”.   This study denotes that this similarity is based on three factors: 1) Sa’adi and Yoshida, lived nearly  in the same era; 2) Both were the wise men and Sufis of their time; with the difference that Yoshida was a recluse monk and Sa’adi, as a wayfarer , had roamed the world far and wide; 3) The resemblance between the two books is completely by coincidence. As we mentioned in this essay ,the similarities between  the two books, are not only in content, but both in content and structure; Tsurezuregusa , like Gulistan, Structured as a collection of poems and stories. But his stories are not as beautiful as Sa’adi’s. Sa’adi  has used a  better artistic form  for  his stories and the plot of his stories are subtly and skillfully. The poems of Gulistan are original and Sa’adi, as a poet, has composed all of them. Yoshida was also a poet, but in his book, he has handpicked the poems of the other poets.   Employing an optimistic and a subtly satirical tone are the other valuable features of Sa’adi’s stories, that distinguish Gulistan from the book of Yoshida. as a result ,Gulistan is structured in more artistic style and this is the reason of  classifying it as a  internationally well-known literary book.

Among contemporary stories, Malone Dies by Samuel Beckett and Blind Owl by Sadegh Hedayat have a superior place. These two works, with their secretive theme, rambling structure and unbroken narratives that do not have a specific chronology, have also influenced the plot of the stories. The aim of the authors in this article is to compare the effect of the components of surrealism on Beckett's Malone Dies and Hedayat's Blind Owl . The type of research is descriptive-analytical and the method of data collection is library and note-taking. The collected material analyzed shows that Beckett and Hedayat were able to push the boundaries of the traditional plot and create a new plot by using surreal components such as: dream, autobiography, doubt and ambiguity, creating an odd and unexpected atmosphere, rupture and disorder and surreal images. Create unconventional and sometimes artistic.

 The type of research is descriptive-analytical and the method of data collection is library and note-taking.

One of the main components of the narrative in the story is the plot. Various theories have long been proposed about the importance and necessity of this basic element. Most theorists believe that the main characteristic of the plot is to create a certain kind of unity and integrity in the narrative. Before examining the plot of the two stories Malone Dies and Blind Owl, it is necessary to include basic definitions of plot in this article: the traditional and original definition of plot and plot is the same as saying: "The framework of the story based on causative relations and "Disabled" (Forrester, 2012, p. 118). In fact, this look at the plot of the story is an answer to the question of what the story was about! The plot is also "an argumentative network that gives a logical character to the story by rationally arranging and conjoining events" (Mirsadeghi, 2001, p. 64). Beckett and Hedayat in these stories, copying the surrealists, combine dream and reality so that they may be able to induce an unbalanced plot in the reader. To examine this plot in more detail, it is necessary to examine the surrealist components of the modern plot in these stories: The first and most important characteristic of surrealism is the automatic writing in a novel. Automatic writing is one of the most direct surrealism techniques for expressing inner truths in Beckett's text and guidance: "That evening life that is like going through a recovery period. Of course, if the memories are really my memories, the memories that man tastes without wandering and following the path of the sun, without discipline, or perhaps deeper than the place of the dead, in the subway corridors and the stench of the free and humiliated groups running away, they are burying themselves to arrive at the right time." (Beckett, 2010, p. 84). The author carefully intends to create a resemblance between evening life and recovery, and in the flicker of an eye, thinks that the subway corridors are deeper than the place of the dead. Doubt, which is characteristic of modern day stories, is moving through the two stories. These mental conflicts, which also happen to reflect the author's unconvinced attitude, bring the story to a standstill. Of course, the author does not seem to want to tell us what happened or is about to happen. He wants to show the impact of what happened because in modern stories, "what matters is the effect of the event on the reader, not the event itself" (Payendeh, 2010, p. 29). This mental disturbance also makes the plot irregular. Disruption and disorder is also one of the surrealist components that has disturbed the logical order in the narration of stories, and this disorder shows the struggle between the conscious and the unconscious in the psychic of the main character of the narrative. Shed: "Order is related to how the events and actions of a story are arranged in time. The narrator may present the events in the same order in which they occurred; That is, the order of the calendar, in which case the narration of the story is direct and linear or he can quote them without order; "That is, the non-calendar order, which in Genet's term is called apocalyptic, creates a nonlinear narrative" (Shakeri, 2016: 206-223). Creating a wonderful atmosphere is another type of surrealist component that has a direct effect on the plot in the stories in question: "The last night I went for a walk like every night was windy and rainy and thick fog covered around Was. "I felt a kind of freedom and comfort in the rainy weather, which reduced the vitality of colors and the vagueness of the lines of objects." (Hedayat, 1972, p. 13) The narrator has created a wonderful atmosphere by imagining a rainy and cloudy weather, the presence of thick fog, the vibrancy of colors and the indecency of the lines of objects, etc., in which he has reached a kind of freedom and comfort. Another influential surrealist component of the plot of Malone Dies and Blind Owl is the dream and the association of the dream. This association of dreams in the two stories is so clear that it can be said that reason and logic are somehow wandering in their space. The last important component is the surrealist images, which are different from the images in realist works: "The surrealist text is shattered and scattered because of surrealist images like dreams" (Shamisa, 2011, p. 175). These images are the creators of impossibilities and disruptors of rational and logical systems that create surprise and wonder and separation from the real world in addition to expressing the purpose, create a special attraction in the mind of the audience. Exactly the same images as in the text of these two stories; The story begins with a logical word, but after narrating a few lines, the narrator describes a nightmare that shows him wandering in a world between reality and dream; The world and the horrible images that are born of the author's imagination and delusion, and in which the real, fixed and identical elements do not remain.

Important surrealist components are persuasive in shaping the plot structure of Malone Dies and Blind Owl, which include: automatic writing, ambiguity, rupture and disorder, the creation of a wonderful atmosphere, dreams and surreal images. In these stories, the sequence of images that the narrator sees in reality or fantasy advance the plot of the story, rather than the causal connection and sequence of the scenes. In general, it should be noted that Beckett and Hedayat, by breaking with tradition, have opened a new perspective in modern storytelling by following the modernists by creating an unusual plot in their stories.

There is an unbreakable bond between myth and literature because of the same origin that they have in human unconsciousness. As the myth uses the capacities of literature, specially poem, to continue its existence, poets use the capacity of myth to make their poetry more beautiful and developed. The function of myth in literature, however, is not restricted to aesthetics. Today, the value of myth and its semantic and aesthetic approaches are undeniable. Myth definitely creates expansive meaning. Being related to celestial and holy affairs, its most important function is political and cultural, especially for men of letters who intend to write about these facts and consider literary works to have social commitment because myths can improve the social solidarity more and better and act as a support for human’s behavior.  Myth is considered as literature womb. When myth has been watered down for the presence of great and popular religions and religious statements, and lost its divine privileges among the people of enlightenment era, the most secure shelter for its living should be found in literature and unconsciousness of poets and writers. Rewriting myths in contemporary poems has become more complicated and diverse, compared with classic poems.  This paper is considered as the first work that intends to study the essence and function of myths in Persian and Arab literature based on Shamloo’s and Al-Bayati’s poems. It also tries to describe and explain the functions and reflections of myths in contemporary poetry using a problem based and recitative approach. There has been some researches done on comparative mythology such as the work by Qoqnoy and Finiq in Nima and Adonis poems.  

This study tries to consider the essence and function of myth in Persian and Arab poetry based on analytic and descriptive method to show the differences and similarities in Shamloo’s and Al-Bayati’s poems.   

Shamloo is one of the most popular and active poets of Persian literature, who is famous for innovating blank verse. The mythical symbols are mostly seen in his poems for their power of gaining the attention of the audience and provoking them. Shamloo has had different ways and goals in using myths. Shamloo’s poetry is of complicated and metaphoric language and with an epistemological aim on account of a problematic mind. Although political and social interpretations of his poems have caused many scholars to think that the main function of myths in his poems is political, but investigating his poems more exactly reveals another hidden aspect of his poetry, i.e., he has used national and Western myths due to describe his epistemological principles.  In other words, those functions depict the epistemological crisis of modernism. In his view, mentality and life of the modern human is irregular and distressed and his mind basis is irresolute and baffled. This human is pursuing the national and mythical past to find a peaceful resort. Myth for Shamloo is not a divine concept, but is a resort to justify new beliefs of epistemology. Human is his new myth in modern time. In his mentality, the myth of resourceful goddess is replaced with modern human. As he is greatly aware of the role of human during the era of humanism, he is going to decanonize ancient myths through the announcement of the death of old myths. In his view, the modern human’s ego is sorrowful and stuck in the non-heroic period with the death of mythical ideals. In Shamloo’s view, inversion of mythical narrations is justified because it represents the cognitive system of modern time and post-structural essence of those narrations. For example, he preferred to mention Christ crucifixion based on non-Islamic narrations and this approach may be an objection to the dominant narrations, so he shows a new function of myth in his poem besides engaging the reader’s mind with that. Also, the death of Nasseri in Poniard on the Plate is another narration about Jesus and his crucifixion. Abdolwahhab al-Bayati is one of the political and well known poets that his extreme political tendencies have caused him to be exiled from Iraq for some time and pass the rest of his life in Jordan. His painful life is completely reflected in his poems.  Since one of the ways for getting repose and peace in modern time is resorting to myths, this aim can be obtained by remaking the glorious past and incorporating it in the present situations.   Myths are the best resorts to Al-Bayati too. Obviously, this affair is in need of a new language and mind. He has used some relevant myths related to his community with respect to his own cultural area. Myths are in service of the social purposes of the poet in symbol. And, for him myth is a means of symbolic justification of political and social aims as he is trying to make the audience active by mentioning the mythical and legend role of Qoqnoos and integrating its function with society. Disappointment from the improvement of people’s conditions motivates Al-Bayati to use the compensatory function of myth. Sindbad myth and the hero’s quest archetype in it, is the best function at hand. He knows himself as Sisyphus in Arab society, the one who is usually being exiled and his effort for making people aware of negligence and passivity won’t pay off. He is expressing his dissatisfaction with living in contemporary society. He wants to show that he likes to live in a better world, but he believes that returning to the utopian world is not going to be possible unless joining the ancient time’s beliefs and the mythical period.

The results show that Shamloo has used myths more expansively and variously than Al-Bayati, whereas Al-Bayati has referred to Egyptian and Greek myths for his political and cultural intentions more. Shamloo planned on using mythical narrations of Rome and Greece frequently on the one hand and reproduction of Persian ones on the other hand. He has tried to reflect mythical narrations in his poems on based on metaphoric and symbolic language to find answers for his epistemological and philosophical questions in modern time. Shamloo has used myths in an original and deconstructive way and with an inversion of meaning. But, myth for Al-Bayati is a means of reproducing a more political and social atmosphere. Unlike Shamloo, who identifies himself with mythical heroes, the myths in Al-Bayati’s poetry are completely separable. In fact, he is going to make his readers be released from passivity. Furthermore, the poetic language of Al-Bayati is simpler and weaker than that of Shamloo. On the other hand, the epistemological function of myths in Shamloo’s poetry in combination with emotions and intuitional perceptions and poetic experiences caused his poems to be more complicated.

The contemporary history of West Asia, the anti-human policies of the colonialists, and the discourse of fighting have been important parts of contemporary literary products. Protest can be considered one of the common ways to fight, and humor can be considered as a method to stand against explosions, intellectual and cultural monopolies, and the destruction of the principles and values of society. Examining the works of poets and writers in different periods reveals the dimensions of these strategies and how tthey are applied objectively and tangibly. The interconnected geography of Islamic civilization, common history, interaction and mutual exchange in various fields, influence over and influence from political, social and cultural events have caused the literature of the Persian and Arabic fields in many cases to represent the same theme in different languages. In considerable parts of the literary works of these two languages, the methods and techniques also have an overlap. This research can be considered as a kind of cultural study based on the American school of comparative literature. Although Kazemi and Matar were not satirists, they would have benefited a lot from the unique capacities of humor. Their poetry is a bitter laugh at the strong discrepancy between what there is and what should have been there.  

This research was conducted using library resources and taking notes from books, articles and dissertations related to the research topic in order to define keywords and terms. Then, with analysis of information and discussion about humor and its functions in poetry of resistance has tried to enumerate the satirical tricks of Mohammad Kazem Kazemi and Ahmad Matar and investigate the common elements of their thought in a descriptive-analytical method. The samples used in this research are taken from Ahmad Matar’s Poetry Collection and  the two books Sword and Geography and Infidelity by Mohammad Kazem Kazemi.

Methods of humor “are either based on verbal or on dramatic techniques.” (Soleimani, 2012, p. 266). Verbal techniques can be divided into two types of lexical and conceptual. Humor is a situation-oriented or character-oriented concept and of course, the combination of “situation and  character” create the essence of humor and laughter (Abdul Hamid, 2003, p. 14). In Kazemi’s and Matar’s poetry, in relation to the personal style of satire, common methods can also be seen. There are contradictions and ugliness, self-abasement, use of the structure or meaning of Quranic verses in the meanings of humor, exaggeration in ridicule and ignorance are the most important of these methods. Incompatibility is a kind of euphemism. It is a secret relationship between the writer and the reader that occurs in times of panic and suffocation and is based on denying the difference between the existing and the desired situation (See: Waqefzadeh, Jahanvand, 2018, p. 107). In this method, the poet keeps himself away from the stage and creates a safe margin to escape from the consequences of his sayings. Self-mockery is a method in which the poet mocks himself or the people and the government. The poet intends to awaken and has inevitably chosen this method. The intercourse of man and animal in many cases is the basis of his mockery. Exaggeration in ridicule is accompanied by a kind of visual association. This kind of humor-tragedy besides being  refreshing, due to the damage and further transmission of the message, it causes a decline in public opinion, which leads to a struggle against the transformation of the law or the occurrence of a revolution (See: Kanfani, 1971, p. 5). Linguistic and mental usage of Qur'anic allegories, interpretations, allusions, the use of the form and atmosphere  of surahs, and the influence of the music of Qur'anic verses are some of the practical methods used in satire. In most other cases, humor transcends the mere words and even the meanings of the verses of the Qur'an and focuses on the meaning of the verses and even religious discourses. Feigning ignorance is a Socratic method aimed at pointing out the bad qualities. A satirist considers himself simple and quick-witted in this trick, and of course, "cleverly speaks of what he is criticizing or denying in a brief manner" (Bagherian, 2008, p. 138).   Content in Matar’s and Kazemi’s Humor Beside similarity in satirical methods, Matar’s and Kazemi's poetry are very similar in content. The common manifestations of the discourse of resistance can be examined in the works of these two poets in the four subject areas, i.e., protest against disorder, delegitimization of political rule, protest against the creation and passivity of the masses, and protest against the indifference of poets. The kingdoms of Arab countries are generally based on oppression, and the era of Saddam is one of the most bitter experiences of the Iraqi people.Traces of the Ba'athist security elements can be seen in most aspects of people's lives. They also follow Ahmad Matar's dreams and refine his unspoken words (See: Matar, 2011, p. 94). In these circumstances, the poet, with a taste of ignorance, calls the people to wake up. Kazemi's satire has portrayed the result of this atmosphere of long-standing and deep fear of the people, rather than depicting oppression and its causes. Matar’s poetry constantly removes masks and shows the reality. The ruler is one of these masks.  The incompetence of Arab rulers, betrayal of nations, creation of anti-people coalitions, plunder of national wealth, hereditary tyrannies, etc. are the subject of the bitter laughter of these poets.  Kazemi does not go to the ruler, but reveals the nature of politicians and hypocritical leaders. Worldly religious people are the most important target of Evin bitter humor. Kazemi also considers foreign actors in Afghanistan and internationally illegitimate and targets the democratization of the colonialists. His persuasive trick is to wake up, visual humor, and use slang language and proverbs. Fear, welfare, sanity, and passivity, as serious obstacles to the right-wing struggle, are the subject of many of Kazemi’s and Matar’s satires. Kazemi does not tolerate the principle of fear discourse and underestimates the arguments arising from fear. Matar considers negligence and passivity of the people as the cause of the domination of tyrannical rulers, and as a result, the poverty of the people in her land. When comparing the poetry of Matar and Kazemi with works of some other poets, the difference in worldview is quite obvious. These two poets composed about idealism and epic in the days of colonialism and tyranny, but others have either withdrawn from the struggle by composing repetitive romances, or by reversing the enemy's discourse in a justifiable manner. Kazemi’s and Matar's satire are both for the poet of the discourse of struggle and against the poet who justifies.

The deep relationship between humor and awakening is quite meaningful for Kazemi and Matar, and the use of humor has made their voices of protest louder and more effective. Ahmad Matar has used explicit and biting humor as a unique strategy and perhaps the only means to awaken and announce his positions, but Kazemi has used humor to attract the audience by modifying his biting humor and using wider lexical tricks. Position and character in Matar satire are made with multiple images, but in Kazemi's poetry, generally single images, accompanied by narration and allusion, create the visual aspects of the poem. The strength of meaning, courage, linguistic and literary skills, simple and clear phrases and combinations, accurate knowledge of people's tastes, critical view and language in general that is close to people's minds are the common features of the humor of these two poets.

Agatha Christie (1890-1976), as one of the most prominent writers of crime fiction genre, has created many works that can be examined from the perspective of criminal psychology and criminology. One of her most difficult and complicated novels, in terms of plot, is the Ten Little Indians, which was originally published in 1939. This novel, like many other novels of Christie, raises this question that “Who is the murderer?” and with focalizing this question/suspension Christie keeps her audience attracted to story from the beginning to the end. The novel narrates the life of a murderer who invites his victims to a ceremony but secretly kills them. His victims have one experience in common: a murder. The central killer of this novel chooses his victims from characters who can be classified under the gray category. They have committed crimes in the past and due to their crimes, victims are left behind, yet these criminals have not been punished. Now, all these criminals are called as ordinary people on a mission outside the city’ they are going to be be punished though none of them knows what awaits them. On the other side of this comparative study is the Iranian novel The Alphabet of Death, written by Mehrdad Morad and published in 2017. In this novel, Morad, with a similar style to Christie, put this question in the core of his plot: "who is the murderer?" The Alphabet of Death unfolds the story of several detectives who work day and night to find a serial killer, who lives in the shadows. His victims, like the victims of Christie's novel, are criminals and have committed various crimes.

This study has used a descriptive-analytical method, for which archival studies have been conducted, especially through the perspective of criminal psychology. In this research, and with close archival reading, the researchers attempted to answer the following questions: What are the characteristics of the murders in these novels? What factor or factors made them a criminal? How does victimization affect a person's delinquency?

In both novels, there is a serial murderer who chooses his victims among the villains and criminals. Yet they have different reasons for killing and to execute it. As Raymaund Gassin  classifies it, crimes are divided into two categories: deception-oriented and violence-oriented. Judge Wargrave’s, Christie’s villain, crime falls into the category of phosphoric and deceptive crimes, because his delicacy and his attention to details allows him to commit murders in an unpredictable and flawless manner. Also, he takes action for each person according to their personality traits, which shows his great intelligence, genius, and using the power of reason. As a result of his creative plans, no one suspects him, and if it was not for the found letter, no one would have known the silent murders of those ten people on the island. On the other hand, in The Alphabet of Death, Khosrow Kouhyar's crime is in the category of calcium crimes and is carried out with violence. He carries out all his murders with physical force and uses weapons. He is eventually arrested because of his not-so-conscious plans and because of the smartness of the novel’s detective. The killers of both stories, despite their differences, have commonalities in neutralizers. They both are aware of their vicious acts and violating the law, but by making excuses, they continue committing murders. They do not regret to become notorious or to be called a serial killer, as they think their killings are justified because their victims deserve death. As mentioned above, despite the similarities between both killers, in etiology of crime, their contradictions become apparent. Judge Wargrave suffers from an antisocial and slightly narcissistic personality disorder, which is due to the violent nature he had experienced since his childhood. People with this type of personality think they have to seek justice in the world. They might attempt killing several offenders in order to establish justice in the world. At the end of the novel, Wargrave commits suicide to complete this masterpiece of art. His behavior is a perfect example of the behavior of an untreated patient who has an easy access to social facilities and that put them in trustworthy position and they easily can harm individuals. He did not have a partner to help him to reach his goals, until he needed someone to be a part of his own dramatic murder, he chose Armstrong. On the other hand, Khosrow Koohyar is not sick. He is a victim himself. A person who loses the ability to come to terms with the truth following a criminal incident. Because of not going through a mourning period and being instilled in a period of anger, he engages in revengeful behaviors. Yet, he shows some traces of thoughtfulness: he chooses a partner and adopts an identity of a dead person and hides in some places. But in the end, all his plans are revealed. It could be said that his only goal is to punish the villains and to prevent their criminal acts. He acts completely emotionally. In contrast to Wargrave, he is not aware of other aspects of his plans. Both stories are written in such a way that readers follow them with curiosity from the beginning to the very end. In this process many people are under suspicion. Yet. there are significant differences between the two texts as well. Agatha Christie's work focuses on characterization; she delicately portrays the killers as well as the central character. Her attention to psychological matters in characterization, the use of appropriate suspensions, accuracy in the characters' criminal behavior, and apropos resolution in the story, has distinguished her from the other writers in this genre. One of the points that makes this novel distinct from the other works of Christie is the absence of a detective and that the murder is solved by the hands of the main killer. On the other hand, Mehrdad Morad's novel can be called a plot-oriented work. A work that accompanies the audience with its story and does not provide accurate information about the characters. What attracts attention in this novel is the presence of several detectives. Although the absence of a detective in Agatha Christie's novel does not damage the essence of the story, it can be boldly said that Mehrdad Morad's story depends on the presence of detectives and they play the main role. One of the features of this novel is gripping story line, the appropriate complications, and creating enough drama, which is less visible in Christie's work. Ultimately, it is not farsighted to say that The Alphabet of  Death is influenced by Agatha Christie. This can be seen in the general form of the narrative, which is looking for the killer. Also, the name of the work reminds us of the Christie’s novel A, B, C Murders, in which the killer finds his victims in alphabetical order, and this feature is also seen in the murderer's character of Morad's work. What distinguishes his novel from the Ten Little Indians is his attention to the progression of the story through cause-and-effect relationships and minimal focus on the characters in the story.

In The Ten Little Indians and The Alphabet of Death, some serial killers secretly choose their victims and create ambiguity for other characters in the story. The similarity between the two characters is that they think to be rightful. According to Matza and Sykes' theories on the neutralization of crime, they use reason and excuses as neutralizers in their consciences to remove the sense of remorse and achieve a criminal purpose by justifying themselves. But the difference is that the character of the murderer, in Morad's novel, is one day traumatized by a criminal, and also with the loss of his wife, he decides to kill the criminals, which is the result of his grief crisis. The murderer in Christie's novel committs the crimes as a result of psychological factors and due to the existence of a mental disorder in him which is revealed at the end of the novel. Criminological perspectives such as "neutralization techniques," which are based on the perpetrator's wisdom, fit well with the actions of the main characters in both novels. The five techniques that criminals use in their minds before committing the crime to justify the criminal act in their mind and to commit it as their inalienable right have been examined in this article. Also, the theory of "routine activity", which is based on the convergence of three factors in the occurrence of the crime, is analyzed in these crime novels and examples of these convergences and heterogeneity are observed in the mentioned works.

 Some grammarians have called the grammatical researches that take place between two languages “Comparative Grammar”, and some others have called it “Contrastive Grammar”, in a way that comparative grammar is a comparison of grammatical roles between two languages with the same roots that are now among dead languages and contrastive grammar is a comparison of grammatical constructions among two living languages, whether they have the same root or not. Despite the differences in interpretations and naming, such studies will pave the way for translators of the target language in translation and correct reading of the source text in order to find equivalents and discover and suggest the best alternatives in the translation process from one language to another. The main purpose of this study is to investigate the role of the manner in the syntactic structure of Arabic texts and how they are translated into Persian. In the educational texts of translation, either the issue of translating different kinds of manner from Arabic to Persian is not raised or in some sources only a brief explanation is provided and singular manner and manner adverbial sentence are often suggested to be translated in the form of adverbs/ adverbial groups. This article by using the capabilities of Persian language and based on existing Persian translations of Arabic texts, especially classical and contemporary translated Qur'ans, semantic equivalents and new grammatical constructions in Persian gives suggestions for translating this syntactic role (manner) And thus, more linguistic arrangements are made available for translators.

   This study compares singular manner and nominal and verbal manner adverbial sentences in Arabic and their grammatical roles of Persian translation in a comparative and statistical method. For this purpose, the main sources are considered on which the main research findings are based, and those are the famous traditional and contemporary translated Qur'ans. The scope of the study of Qur'anic samples is from the beginning of Surah Al-Baqarah to the end of Surah Al-Furqan. At first, from the above-mentioned sources, 150 singular manner samples and manner adverbial sentence samples are selected and then they are matched with the existing Persian translations. Then, it is determined what grammatical roles the singular manner and the manner adverbial sentences of Arabic get when translating into Persian. Also, by presenting statistical results in the form of tables and graphs, their frequency of application is made clear. Due to the fact that singular manner and manner adverbial sentences have more application and frequency than manner adverbial clause in Arabic texts, in this research, only the first two types have been discussed. The basis of our study in terms of grammatical roles in Persian translations are: Vahidian Kamyar (2019): Persian grammar books (1), and Givi & Anvari (2019): Persian grammar (1), and naming are based on these books.

There are three types of manners in Arabic: singular manner, manner adverbial sentence (nominal/verbal), and clause (jar wa majrur [proposition and the word after that]). In the present study, a comparison is made between singular manner and manner adverbial sentence in Arabic and sematic equivalents and their equivalent grammatical constructions in Persian. Singular manner, in comparison with other constructions, is translated into Persian as an adverb. The example of this construct is worth paying attention to in the translation of the following verse: (obediently), (sneaky), (small), (obedient), (wandering), (immediately), (expressive), (unachievable), (blessed), (clean), (abandoned), (merciful) and … . Translation in the form of verbal complement or adverbial complement is the second most commonly used applied translation in which the presence of verbal complement of the sentence is obligatory and presence of the adverbial complement is optional and it can be omitted. But the number of adverbial complements is four times more than verbal complements. But some words that are singular manner and verbal complement that have been used in sentence cannot be omitted. The third most commonly used construct in translation of singular manner into Persian is sentence form. Sometimes in independent sentence form and mostly dependent sentences that when we explicate them, they can be placed in adjective position or adverb position. The fourth most commonly used construct in translation of singular manner into Persian is in predicate form; which means establishing a predicate relationship between the translated word with verbs like “ (is), (was), (become), (became)” and their derivatives.  Another type of translation of singular manner is verb form. In eight cases of the studies samples, singular manner is translated into object form. The other types of manner are nominal and verbal sentences that in Persian are translated as dependent sentences. In the studied samples, except for seven cases which have been translated into Persian as independent sentences, the translation of other cases are in dependent sentence form; That is, out of a total of one hundred and fifty (150) manner adverbial sentences (nominal / verbal), one hundred and forty-three cases have been translated as dependent sentences and only seven cases have been translated into Persian as independent sentences. The number of nominal sentences is more than verbal sentences. A noteworthy point in translation of the manner of a sentence into Persian is that manner in Arabic texts, whether in the form of a nominal sentence or in the form of verbal sentence, is translated into Persian as a dependent sentence, rather than independent sentences. Since manner adverbial sentence is part of a larger semantic unit and in fact, it expresses agent in Arabic, therefore, if translation of the manner adverbial sentence is a part of the sentence (that means translation in the form of dependent sentence in Persian), it will be closer to the source language and matches the Persian sentence structure; consequently the reader makes a closer connection between Arabic sentence and its Persian translation and can be understood better. In addition, just as in the translation of the singular manner into Persian, in which the ratio of their translation as adverb was higher than other roles, manner adverbial sentences have been translated into Persian mostly as adverbial group rather than other rules.

Statistical-analytical analysis shows that singular manner and manner adverbial sentence, contrary to what is stated in the existing sources on translation and comparative studies of Persian grammar and Arabic syntax, are not translated only in adverb form in Persian; It can also be translated into other roles, but their translation as an adverb / adverbial group is both semantically more clear and more widely used by translators. From the selected samples of manner (singular and adverbial sentence) in Arabic texts and their Persian translations, it was determined that singular manner is translated into Persian in the form of adverb, adverbial complement, sentence, predicate, verb complement, verb, object And noun in the genitive case, among which translation into adverb of manner or adverbs with no signsàadverbial group common with adjective has a higher frequency in comparison with other types, also semantically adverb is a more appropriate equivalent for the singular manner in translation into Persian, because it expresses the modality of the subject or object when doing something or accepting a state. Among different types of sentence, whether the nominal sentence or verbal sentence, are translated into Persian as a dependent sentence, which is itself part of a larger semantic unit (compound sentence). Considering the status and role of the manner adverbial sentence in Arabic texts, its translation as a dependent sentence is better than other types of sentence (core sentence / independent sentence); As they have been translated in most of the analyzed samples, in the form of Persian-related sentences.