مجله منظر
پیاپی 56 (پاییز 1400)

A ritual landscape is a combination of ‘Place’, ‘Event’, and ‘Manifestation’ in which the latter one is stronger than the others. In a ritual landscape ‘observation’ and ‘participation’ are considered as the main elements. The key actors in ritual landscape are the ordinary people as the audiences who participate in comprehending the play are of the same type.The ritual landscape is not the narrator of history, similar to what is happening to the myth; but instead it speaks of desires, concerns, and worldviews of past times. Therefore, criticizing it as a real fact and a narrator of history might have the anti-cultural consequences. The religious ceremony of Carpet-Washing (Persian: Qālī shūyān) held in Mashhad-e Ardahal is one of the ritual landscapes in which there is a combination of two traditional ceremonies belong to the Iranian Pre-Islamic and Post-Islamic cultures both in one ceremony. The event is held on the second Friday of the month of Mehr (October), which is according to the calendar of the propitious times (Saad) in ancient Iran, and its story is based on the blood revenge for an offense committed against the Imamzadeh. The symbols used in the ceremony has such a diverse and combinational aspects that decoding them can expose many ways for understanding the Iranian culture.Although the carpet-washing ceremony is kind of landscape that has gradually formed with many historical developments, but recent actions toward them with the aim of ideological interpreting might jeopardize its historical and mythological dimension. It should be noted that the ritual landscape cannot necessarily be evaluated by rational interpretation and its useful outcome addressing the utilitarianism; Rather, it is more appropriate to be considered as a manifestation of past culture in relation to the place. The combination of two rituals of ‘Choob-Dastan’ (People with sticks in their hands) and the emotional ceremony of ‘Nohe-Khani’ (a musical performance and mourning for Imam Hussein during the Moharam) together with the simultaneous participation of the actors and audiences in the ceremony, brings a special feeling toward an important event happened in the past of this territory, which its connection with the Imamzadeh's blood revenge gives the ceremony a sense of justice; as a final word, the ritual landscape of Qālī shūyān must be preserved.

The art of Iranian narrative painting, which reflects the poetry and literature of Iran, has continuously recorded the Iranian culture and beliefs associated with popular and royal themes in a colorful world, and in an inspiring place and landscape from the distant past to the present. The various scenes from epic and religious narrations to poetic and romantic themes, preying moments, battles and feasts of kings, and some other various events, all are depicted in the Iranian art of miniatures by reflecting the people`s daily life which has been described in the literary texts and poems and have been represented perfectly in miniatures by the skillful artists. The Iranian culture and belief have represented themselves in nature; so what is constantly manifested in these images is the ‘Iranian Garden’ (Bagh) and orchards (Boostan), with all elements and details, comparable to the real world. The presence of gardens and the art of gardening is known as the original and long-lasting Iranian arts that have always been associated with the Iranian people's life since ancient times and it has continued in the Islamic era.The garden has always been recognized as a sacred place in ancient Iran where the early temples and a combination of ‘Water’, ‘Plants’ and ‘Chartaghi-Temples’ haves been presented all over this land since ancient times, which is rooted in the naturalistic beliefs and religions of Iranian people. The ancient ‘gardens-temples’ (Bagh-Mabad) have turned into the ‘garden- tombs’ (Bagh-Mazar) in the Islamic era, and the gardening pattern of the Iranian-Islamic was formed over time by incorporating the sacred elements of water, plants and the Chartaghi- Kushk/Kooshk (pavilion) next to them, Considering the Iranian miniature painting has always been associated with the world of ‘imagination’ or a kind of ‘Mundus Imaginalis’ so far, it is necessary to clarify and correct this false reference and to address its real naturalistic position in the original Iranian art. This study has tried to prove that the miniature scenes have always been a reflection of the real Iranian garden, Kooshk, and the other related sacred elements such as water and plant; it also represents the Iranian garden and the real nature of Iran, which is rooted in the ancient beliefs of the people. This research article is prepared based on the analysis of previous works, relying on the deductive method, which has indirectly criticized the ideas were available in the field of Iranian painting. The aim of this study is to evaluate the existing theories on miniatures which have mostly been grounded on the unreasonable and expressive basis, that are sometimes inaccurate views though they have been common for a long time. Therefore, it is important to emphasize that Iranian gardening has evidently manifested in miniature scenes. The Iranian paintings depict the natural aspects in real scenes inspired by the available real gardens of the ancient Iran.

In recent decades, the interpretation of the relationship between man and the environment has been one of the most important researchers’ challenges, caused by the development of urban sciences. This issue has shaped new concepts such as landscape. The emergence of this concept has been the result of many studies conducted by experts and researchers over the years.  Reviewing the literature shows that there is a semantic pluralism for the term landscape. It also highlights a lack of consensus on the term among the scholars. Experience has shown that the survival of a scientific approach requires reflection on its logical foundations. This could be achieved by providing a single definition for its basic concepts. Such a definition makes it possible for researchers to debate on the issues in the field. Multiple interpretations result in various strategies through which the environment can be influenced. The interpretations also lead to developing different approaches. This study shows that different and sometimes contradictory concepts have been used to describe the term landscape. In the proposed definitions, the term landscape has been conceptualized as perceptual relations including the perceiver and perceived components and this concept is the product of experts' interpretation of how these components are related and how their relations are verbalized. This paper sought to analyze contemporary approaches to explain the concept of the landscape. To this purpose, we examined the components of definitions and analyzed them using content analysis to propose a comprehensive definition of the term landscape. Growing research shows that experts' descriptions of the components (perceiver, perceived, relation, and product) fall into several conceptual categories. It seems that the term landscape can be best described as the perceptual relationship between "man as a perceiver" and "environment as a perceived element" established by a "continuous" link and results in products with an "objective-subjective" nature.

The Public spaces of each civilization are among the important issues in determining the social identity of that era and social history is a guiding background in the formation and success of these spaces. In order to recover the lost identity of the tribes, considering the preservation of the historical identity sequence, it is possible to refer to the past and re-read the signs and meanings hidden in the body. In the Safavid period, despite the use of force and seizure of public property in the process of construction of Naghsh-e-Jahan Square, this space was welcomed after a while, the effects of which remain to this day. This article seeks to find out how the Safavid government influenced the transformation of the meaning of space and the creation of social identity of Public spaces. In other words, the question has been how to construct a special social identity of the Safavid era and its role in constructing the desired Public space of this research. The present study, based on a documentary and library study of the social history research method, deals with the effects of social tendencies in architecture. For this purpose, after introducing the intellectual foundation of the Safavid government, the social results of these ideas and its effects on the architecture of the Public space and its social acceptance are examined. This research is based on the assumption that the measures taken politically and culturally to create religious and cultural integration have had the greatest impact on the identification of Public spaces. The result of this study made it clear that thePublic space of the Safavid era in terms of time factors of formation includes three dimensions of political, religious and territorial and in terms of causes in social practice includes three systematic parts of physical and spatial and construction and these factors led to collective spaces. This period should have unique characteristics that, except in the eyes of the rulers, gradually gained legitimacy and social identity from the point of view of the space audience

New monuments (counter-monuments) as frameworks through which remind collective and personal memories from past in the present, reject the traditional memorial works. In recent decades with an increasing variety of counter-monumental landscape in public spaces and the distinct intentions behind them on the one hand and the growing need of human societies to recover collective memory of urban landscape on the other hand necessitate the systematic analysis of the adopted strategies Based on the importance of this issue, the article aims to answer the following question: "what are the typological components of a contemporary counter-monumental landscape based on semiotic knowledge?” The present study was qualitative and was performed based on a descriptive-analytical method using the library documents to develop a conceptual model of the typology of the contemporary counter-monumental landscape with pierce's semiotic approach. Components of counter-monumental landscapes were explicated on using three methods, namely formal-functional topology of Argan, interpretive-historical topology of Moneo, and archetypal topology of Ardalan and Bakhtiar which served as basis for investigating visual, narrative and archetypal components. To prove the hypothesis, the classification of types was based on the definitions and previous studies in this field, and to test the hypothesis, all 32 extractive components were studied comparatively by randomly selecting 64 case studies from the middle of the twentieth century to the present day. Findings show that according to Peircean semiotic, icon, and index ad symbol were triple typologies of the sign in the memorial landscape survey. By considering objective, subjective and objective-subjective components of landscape, the contemporary counter-monumental landscape signs were classified into three categories namely visual, archetype and narrative types. Visual types consist natural elements, artificial elements, and activity and function; archetypal types include empty grave, stella-obelisk, sacred path, circle-spiral, flight, cosmic mountain-large stone, cosmic dome- cosmic arch, cosmic tree-garden, light-water; and narrative types are divided into traumatic experiences, individual-local & collective values.

The land of China has always been one of the main civilizations of the East. This country has never been part of the Muslim realm or even had a government with the Islamic religion. However, from the beginning of the formation of Islamic civilization until today, Chinese Muslims have had a special place, such as masque. Architecture is one of the most prominent relics of human civilization, and in this regard, valuable works have been created in Chinese Muslim civilization. There is a question here that where has the architectural model of Chinese mosques come from, considering the civilization that Muslims have created through economic or cultural relations leading to the transmission of Islam and the formation of Chinese mosques; To answer this question, one of the perfect examples of Chinese Mosques called the Great Mosque of Xian has been reviewed. In the present study, to discover the architectural pattern of this mosque, the characteristics of the early Islamic mosques and the pre-Islamic architecture of China have been compared. The present article is based on the premise that the architectural model of Chinese Mosques has been derived from its ancient temples. The adopted research method is a case study analysis, and interpretations are based on the features of the selected sample of ‘Medina Mosque’, from the early Islamic mosques, and the ‘Confucius Nanjing Temple’ from the native architecture of China in pre-Islamic times. The comparative study of the Great Mosque of Xian with early Chinese mosques and temples shows that the architectural pattern of this mosque is derived from the traditional Chinese temples and its influence from Islamic mosques is limited to the building direction the presence of Mihrab, changing the function of traditional architectural spaces and using Islamic architectural scripts in traditional decorations of the target building.

The presence and identity of the community living in the cultural landscape of Hawraman is the result of a homogeneous combination of human thinking in interaction with nature. The harmony of natural and man-made elements in this region from the perspective of the system of settlement and livelihood, permanently and temporarily, defines an interpretable way of life that aims to improve the quality of collective life of human beings in the region. Hawar’s lifestyle is one of the surviving examples of human harmony with nature in this cultural perspective. The purpose of the present study was to review and introduce the characteristics of Hawar’s lifestyle and examine its different types in Hawraman region. This study is based on a qualitative method and is descriptive and analytical in terms of methodology. The research findings clarify that Hawar’s lifestyle as an approach has played an effective role in the stability of life to date due to human interaction with nature. Based on the results, this study indicates that different types of Hawar’s lifestyle are affected by livelihoods in this region. According to the studies, Hawar’s lifestyle is categorized into three classes according to the occupation of the inhabitants: garden based, livestock based and mixed type.