پژوهشنامه مذاهب اسلامی
پیاپی 15 (بهار و تابستان 1400)

Deobandiyyah is a school that originated from the theological denomination of Maturidiyyah about two centuries ago. The claim of following Maturidi theology is the most important theological feature of Deobandiyyah. However, comparing theological opinions shows that Deobandiyyah took a different view on the issues of monotheism and polytheism. Some of these discrepancies go back to the different methodological foundations of the Deobandis. In response to the question of the extent of Deobandi's evolution, considered in the subject of research, it is concluded that Deobandis are more inclined to the narrative method and emphasize on such issues as prioritizing narrations over reason, delegating the meaning of God's narrative attributes to Him (instead of interpreting them as the Maturidis do) and the certainty of texts (in contrast to the skepticism of texts in Maturidiyyah's view). Some other theological views, for example the emphasis on exaltation in understanding the attributes of God, the negation of tashbih (anthropomorphism) and tatil (divesting God of His attributes) are quite similar between the Maturidis and the Deobandis in terms of methodological principles. The only difference is that the mentioned issues are summarized in Maturidiyyah and elaborated in Deobandiyyah.

Throughout the history of Islamic thought, for years and even centuries, the question has been raised whether Islam advocates the originality of jihad or peace. In this article, two theories in Imami and Sunni thoughts are studied and the views of denominations and their jurists are mentioned and analyzed in order to provide appropriate solutions based on specific rules. This article examines the verses that indicate the first principle of jihad with a descriptive-analytical approach and concludes that they are in the position to confront koffar harbi (infidels against whom war can be waged). To confirm this, the practice and tradition of the Prophet (S) as well as the verses that refer to the peace and seclusion are cited. Therefore, the theory proposed and strengthened in this study is that the first principle in relations with infidels is authoritative peace, in which, of course, the conditions of Islamic sovereignty and independence must be taken into account

The article aims to recognize the pragmatic rational method in Sadugh's scientific discipline. Rationality is the link between man and the universe that arises from the objective relationship with the external world. Using the theory of communicative rationality and the method of documentary analysis in Sadugh's intellectual life, this research concludes that Sadugh has debated, corresponded, and discussed by quoting narrations related to reason and using the content of the narrations in an argumentative way. In addition, by using the works of other scientists, attending scientific and political centers in a completely rational way and following the Quran, the Noble Prophet (S) and Ahl al-Bayt (his household), Sadugh, in proportion to his life, has taken a pragmatic rational approach in his scientific life in various scientific categories and concepts such as reasoning in the best dialogue and accepting the superior reason, respecting and loving human beings and consulting with them, migrating for scientific and propaganda purposes and conducting debates and discussions, pursuing education and guidance with the preservation of human dignity, as well as socializing and believing in the Imamate as a factor of unity, security and justice

Differences between the commentators of the Holy Quran on some interpretive fundamentals have led to the emergence of different schools of exegesis. Meanwhile, Shiites and Sunnis, as the two main groups of Muslims, while sharing many fundamentals and methods of exegesis, have major differences in the interpretation of various verses according to some fundamentals specific to their denomination. Rather than being related to the method of exegesis, these differences are mainly related to their fundamentals and presuppositions in interpretation, which ultimately have led to two schools of exegesis, Shiite and Sunni. However, it seems that the differences in fundamentals and presuppositions are not so great in comparison with the commonalities of the two sects that no more commonalities can be achieved by criticizing them. "Comparative interpretation", which means a methodical comparison of the interpretive opinions of the two sects, can identify weaknesses that, by eliminating them, the sects will reach a more interpretive agreement. In this study, ‌ the most important weaknesses in a number of commentaries in the section of fundamentals and presuppositions have been identified, which are as follows: prejudice against religious presuppositions, considering the interpretive narrations of the opposite sect as falsified, attributing "interpretation by opinion" to the commentaries of other denominations, and exclusion of the opposite sect from Islam.

Marjeh as one of the Islamic sects emerged based on the circumstances of the Islamic society. This doctrine first laid its ideological foundations by avoiding judging the companions of the Prophet (S) on the issue of his succession. Although the sect was initially tied to political issues, gradually over time, its basic teachings entered theological and religious discourses, where it was believed that a person's faith was separate from his action. In scrutinizing the factors making the idea of Erja (postponement), one must first examine the religious and non-religious causes. The question of this research is: what factors did lead to the formation of Murjiah in Khorasan? In this regard, factors such as the geographical and economic location of Khorasan, tribal differences, conquests and various social groups should be considered, which this article deals with  historically by using a descriptive-analytical method

Tolerance and ignorance means to bear opposing views and behavior. Mystics, relying on the Quran and traditions, have always sought to create a society in which human beings of all faiths and religions live together in peace and tranquility and love one another. They have tried to save human society from the hardships, prejudices and perversions that lead to hostility and enmity between nations. They also believe that most of the differences between nations are due to false fantasies and illusions about each other and the inaccuracies that superficial people have attributed to other religions, which is itself a sign of not understanding the truth. Examining Attar's Masnawi, this study intends to express his approach to tolerance and ignorance according to the intellectual and religious currents of his era and environment, and to show that Attar did not consider the difference between religions and sects important, but while inviting everyone to avoid bigotry in religion, he called them to peace, friendship, and human virtues. For this purpose, after referring to the lexical and idiomatic meanings of tolerance and ignorance, and examining their foundations in the West and Islam, religious tolerance in terms of the field and realm of Attar's four Masnawis (Mantegh al-Tayr, Mosibat Nameh, Elahi Nameh and Asrar Nameh) is examined, and prominent factors of belief in this important principle from Attar's point of view are rooted

The social, historical and economic contexts of Islam in the Umayyad era (41-132 AH) and the early first Abbasid period (132-232 AH) confronted the Islamic world with movements in which the belief in Mahdism was a common feature. Mahdist movements, based on their religious, political and social status, had different theoretical foundations concerning the savior, such as being the son of the Prophet (S), being a descendant of Fatima (SA), bearing the slogan "Al-Reza men Al Mohammad" (The Chosen from the Family of Mohammad (S)), having the position of representative etc. Jenahiyyah, which was the most important current after the death of Abdollah ibn Moawiyah ibn Abdollah ibn Jafar ibn Abi Talib (130 AH), was influenced by this motive. However, their uprising has been almost forgotten in history, because, firstly, it was overshadowed by the massive Abbasid movement, and secondly, Abdollah ibn Moawiyah is a figure who has not been taken seriously in the sources and has been accused of exaggeration, antinomian and harshness. Taking a descriptive-analytical approach and raising a question about the historical impact of the thought of Mahdism on the Jenahiyyah movement, this article deals with the various dimensions of this movement. The results show that the motive of Mahdism did not have much effect on the first stage of the uprising, but in its second stage and after the death of its leader, Abu Moslem Khorasani, the motive appeared objectively in Herat prison (130 AH) and manifested itself in the three currents of "Abdollah is the same as Mahdi", "Abdollah is the liaison of the savior of the apocalypse" and "Abdollah is the liaison of a Hashemi person".

Despite the differences between theology and mysticism, there is a relationship between them. This relationship can be examined in individuals like Rumi who has excelled in both fields of science. Before meeting
with Shams, he was a theologian and jurist, and since then he became a prominent mystic. Although in his works, mysticism has prevailed in explaining his views and also mysticism and love have a high status, in addition to mystical issues, theological matters are seen in his works. This is one of the reasons why readers find contradictions in Rumi's works, while carefully looking at his writings, we recognize that he looked at some things from different perspectives. Therein, theological beliefs have influenced some aspects of his mysticism and on the other hand, mysticism has also influenced his beliefs. Of course, in general, we find the effect of mysticism much more vivid. In this research, using the library method, we try to study the relationship between theology and mysticism in Rumi's view.

Amir Fakhr al-Din Yusof (582-647 AH) descended from the family of Great Sheikh Sadr al-Din Mohammad (543-617 AH), one of the most influential Sufi families in the Levant and Egypt during the Ayyubid period (r. 567-648 AH). He played a prominent role in the political and military developments during the reign of Malek Kamel and his sons, especially King Saleh Najm al-Din Ayyub, and after Najm al-Din's death he became the viceroy for a while. In this article, based on a sample research model, we try to describe and explain the historical data on the political and military actions of Amir Fakhr al-Din Yusof, so that the position and role of the Sufis as an active current in the political and even military arenas in the Ayyubid government becomes clearer. The most important actions of Amir Fakhr al-Din in political affairs can be seen in his various missions on behalf of the Ayyubids to Baghdad, different regions of Syria and Sicily, and in his mediating role in reducing political tensions and conflicts in the Ayyubid dynasty and foreign conflicts with the Crusaders, especially close relations with Emperor Frederick II. In addition, being the commander in the Crusades, especially the Seventh War and the viceroy of the Ayyubid dynasty can be mentioned as his most important positions in military affairs.

In the present era, comparative study in Islamic research between different denominations, especially Shiites and Sunnis, is one of the important study methods that in addition to recognizing the views of the two sects on Islamic issues, has a special role in providing a suitable solution for resolving differences and approximating Islamic denominations. One of these main and fundamental issues is the comprehensiveness of the Quran. Islamic scholars from ancient to modern times have explained this basis by referring to verses and hadiths and have expressed different views about the realm of the comprehensiveness of the Quran. Using the descriptive-analytical method, this research has comparatively explored the comprehensiveness of the Quran in two important commentaries of the two sects, Tafsir al-Kashef and Tafsir al-Quran al-Karim. Findings show that Moghniyeh and Shaltut, by accepting the comparative comprehensiveness, have considered the religion of Islam and the Holy Quran to include the previous religions and divine books, and rejecting the maximum comprehensiveness, believe that the application of Quranic verses to the rules of natural sciences, due to the fact that these sciences are prone to error and change, causes the transmission of the error and change to the Quran.
Both commentators consider the references of the Quran to the generalities of some sciences and arts in the direction of human guidance and have thus accepted the moderation-guidance comprehensiveness of the Quran.
In addition, both thinkers have rejected the minimal view of the comprehensiveness of the Quran and have considered various sciences and arts to be effective in understanding the verses of the Quran, provided that they are not a criterion for understanding the Quran. They have also given an explanatory role to the Quran in three areas of beliefs, rules and ethics. Moreover, they have considered the Quran as a book of guidance for human beings in individual and social life.

Prominent mystics have always claimed the existence of an independent epistemological way of receiving facts, which some have considered its authority to be inherent and unconditional. As the founder of mystical and codified theoretical mysticism, Ibn Arabi has unique views on mystical epistemology, in particular the authority of revelation. His remarks on the infallibility of mystical revelations have given rise to the theory of the inherent authority of revelation among scholars. Researchers have been at odds over the quality of the inherent authority of revelation. Using the documentary-library method as a data collection, and descriptive-analytical method as an analysis with a developmental approach, this study seeks to reflect on the views of mystics, especially Ibn Arabi, in order to draw a consistent picture of inherent authority of mystical revelations. This article criticizes Ibn Arabi's words on the absolute authority of mystical revelations and, after stating the general rules about the possibility of proving inherent authority, will finally evaluate the most important claimed examples of the inherent authority.

Although the concept of "being" is known, and its nature is the same, there are different views on it. Ibn Arabi's view on the issue has a different and special place. Ontology in his school is tied to another fundamental issue called the "personal unity of being", without understanding which, it is difficult to achieve the ontological system of this great mystic. Therefore, we have tried to seek his opinion about "being" directly by relying on his two important books, Fotuhat and Fosus. According to Ibn Arabi, there is a single being in the universe, and that is the Almighty, and the rest of the beings are manifestations, or in other words, the names and attributes of God.

In the field of epistemology, "constructivism" is basically a post-Kantian view as opposed to the traditional view of representationalism. There are different types of epistemological constructivism, but what they have in common is that knowledge is like a commodity made in part or in full by the cognitive agent, and it is not in accordance with the view of representationalists who believe that the cognitive agent's mind merely acts as a mirror and narrator for independent reality outside the mind. The idea of ​​constructivism has also spread to the realm of mystical experience / revelation. Constructivists, in contrast to essentialists, believe that mystical experience / revelation is formed within the framework of the previous conceptual construction of the mind of an individual who had already mystical experience / revelation. In this article, it is examined that a kind of constructivism is seen in the thought of Sadr al-Din Ghunawi, which can be called "nominal constructivism". Defending the validity of intuitive knowledge called ghorbi (proximity) or fanayi (annihilation), Ghunawi emphasizes the role of the noun governing the cognitive agent in the construction of rational knowledge as well as bound intuitive knowledge, although he excludes proximity intuition from the scope of this constructivism. Accordingly, it can be said that Ghunawi believes in a kind of limited or partial constructivism. Finally, in the view of the authors, this kind of constructivism is neither defensible, nor does it fulfill Ghunawi's ultimate goal in defending intuitive knowledge.

Research on the superiority of "religion" over "ethnicity" is a new subject that Baluch religious and ethnic thinkers have sought to explain. Shiites or those in charge have paid less attention to this issue, but some of them look at it as a limited and confrontational question and consider ethnicity superior. A study of Baluch sociological issues reveals another fact that is the title of this article. In this research, phenomenological method, participatory interview, epistemological foundations (influential personalities) and non-epistemological foundations (political and cultural) have been used. The aim of the research is to show a new method of renewal according to the narration that Abu Dawud, one of the authors of the six Sunni books whose authenticity is agreed upon, quoted, in his book, from the Prophet as saying "At the beginning of every hundred years, God sends someone to revive His religion". "Someone" in the above narration refers to both the individual and the religious assemblies and centers. As a result, the Baluch Sunni community has formed a religious scientific movement and has surpassed and preceded its counterpart, ethnicity

After being established by Sheikh Abu Ishagh Kazeruni in the second half of the fourth century AH, the Morshidiyya sect was consistently guided by its main headquarters in Kazerun through creating an extensive monastic network. The present article, using a descriptive-analytical method and relying on the main sources, seeks to answer the question: What role did geographical and cultural contexts play in the formation and expansion of Morshidiyya monasteries? By studying the natural and cultural geography of Kureh Shapur, it is concluded that the presence of great Sufis in Shiraz such as Abu Abdollah ‌Mohammad ibn Khafif and also the passage of the Shiraz trade route to the sea through the Kazerun region, provided the basis for cultural and religious exchanges between Shiraz and Kazerun. At that time, Kazerun from Kureh Shapur and its surrounding areas was one of the important centers of Zoroastrianism. This caused Sheikh Abu Ishagh to settle there and establish his monasteries in Kureh Shapur to spread Islam. The attraction of the Morshidiyya monastery, which paved the way for its expansion in Kureh Shapur, was due to several factors. In addition to the spiritual virtues of Abu Ishagh Kazeruni, the provision of social services to the needy and travelers and the support of merchants and traders for the monasteries of Morshidiyya are among these factors.

The subject of shariat (religious laws), tarighat (mystical path) and truth can be seen in the works of Ezz al-Din Mahmud Kashani. Determining the position of these three terms, and their relationship as well as explaining religious teachings based on them, is one of Kashani's central topics. Using the descriptive-analytical method, the present study deals with the position and relationship of these three concepts, their levels and Kashani's mystical attitude, based on them, towards religious teachings. Finally, it examines his approach to the harmonization of mystical teachings with the Quran and tradition, as well as the necessity of adhering to the appearances of shariat. The results of the research indicate that he considers the mentioned concepts as layers of a reality and while combining them, with a mystical approach, analyzes and studies religious teachings. In addition, Kashani sees the origin of pure mystical teachings only in the Quran and tradition and considers adherence to shariat necessary in all cases.

The Abbasids and Ismailis, relying on their family background and being Hashemites, organizational goals, as well as the favorable conditions that arose for them, succeeded in forming a secret organization in different historical circumstances. They gradually operated in different parts of the Islamic lands and used preachers (missionaries) to expand their invitation organization. By comparing these two invitation organizations, a better historical judgment of their performance is possible. The main question of this article is: What are the commonalities and differences between the two invitation organizations in their formation and emergence? In order to form the invitation organization, the Abbasids claimed the transfer of Abu Hashem's invitation organization to themselves, and the Ismailis also claimed the appointed Imamate of Ismail and his son Mohammad ibn Ismail as the Imams after Imam Sadegh (AS). Efforts to achieve the goals, pressure and oppression of the governments of the time, the activities of rival groups, the existence of favorable grounds, the need to communicate with followers and the collection of financial resources are the factors that gave rise to the two organizations.

In Dey 1398 coinciding with December 2019, the news of the cowardly assassination of Qasem Soleimani, Abu Mahdi al-Mohandes and their companions at Baghdad airport shocked everyone. The White House and President Trump himself claimed responsibility for the assassination and confessed to killing General Soleimani. International legal experts have addressed this issue in various ways; but the main question in this research is: From the perspective of international criminal law, is it possible to prosecute the perpetrators of the assassination, as well as to punish them and execute a proportionate sentence? And if so, what is the procedure? In international criminal law, real territorial and global jurisdictions are more prominent than other factors. It seems that both in international and regional courts, as well as in the relevant countries of Iraq, Iran and third countries, it will be possible to prosecute and execute the perpetrators, including Trump, US military agents, etc.

Context in all its forms has an undeniable effect on the formation of the verbal signification of narrated sources. However, considering the definition of context, its separation from what it belongs to and the types of context, the quality of the effect is debatable. In the works of Usuli scholars from different denominations, general criteria can be reached in recognizing the context from what it belongs to. And in dividing the context, two different ways of classification and quality of its effect should be considered. In the traditional classification of the science of the principles of jurisprudence, which has evolved in Shiism, there are seven divisions, most of which are related to the type of context, but in another classification proposed by Sunni scholars, it is divided into five types based on the quality of their effects on the signification of what context belongs to. The result of this comparative study is to help complete contextology, which requires two types of discussion; the discussion of the nature and type of context, and the discussion of the quality of its involvement in signification. Thus, in the end, a clear demarcation can be made between ambiguousness and unambiguousness, and some aspects of the theory of text interpretation by Usuli scholars can be clarified.

There is an interpretation of the ethical theory of natural law in the views of some Shiite thinkers. This article, while referring to the history of this theory in Shiite Islamic thought, explores the ethical foundations in the works of Makarem Shirazi as an example of the late defenders of the traditional interpretation of the theory of formative ethics. He has based man's movements in the path of virtue and vice upon a scheme of natural talents and tendencies in human existence, and in four steps, he has spoken of a morality that is based on nature and creation. In the first step, he analyzes the natural needs of man, in the second step, he identifies stimuli in the structure of human existence to meet needs, in the third step, he sets a goal for these desires to direct them, and in the fourth step, he speaks of the factor that guides the desires towards the determined goal. The purpose of this article is to analyze this idea as an example of contemporary interpretations of the ethical theory of natural law in Shiite thought.