نشریه ادبیات تطبیقی
پیاپی 26 (بهار و تابستان 1401)

The present article studies some notions in Psychoanalysis in the context of Linguistics and Translation Studies (TS), and aims at investigating the relationship between Jacques Lacan’s (1901-1981) ideas and a number of fundamental concepts and notions in the field of TS.Lacan transformed psychoanalysis from a merely 'therapeutic methodology' into a novel form of science concentrating mainly on the various 'realities' rooted in culture (Pombo Sánchez, 2007, cited in Tristán, 2015: 61). Translation, as a product, can have its own life in the target language (TL) and possess a somehow independent ‘identity’. Since 'identity', as a specialized concept in psychoanalysis, is deeply rooted in 'culture', the study of culture, as a concept narrowly intertwined with ‘language’ and ‘translation’, gains paramount significance (Afrouz, 2017: 41; Afrouz, 2020: 9). But, the important point here is that, while a lot of researchers have worked on issues like ‘culture’, ‘identity’ and ‘translation’, few studies attempted to rigorously take the issue of ‘psychoanalysis’ and its relation to the TS theories into consideration. Therefore, the current study was an attempt just to fill the research gap, or at least, to avoid the expansion of such a gap into becoming a complete breakage.

The American School of comparative literature is the general framework of the paper and principles of conducting interdisciplinary studies introduced by Henry Remak and Steven Tötösy de Zepetnek are the main basis for conducting the present study. In the American School, in contrast to the French School, the scope of literature is so wide that it paves the way for researchers to make their comparison related to various fields of studies, such as linguistics, Translation Studies, art, psychology, psychoanalysis, etc.As for the corpus of the current study, we had Lacan’s ideas, extracted from his books and articles, analytically compared with a number of fundamental concepts and notions in the field of TS—the concepts were mainly adopted from ideas of some key figures in the field. 

Lacan refers to three stages of the growth of an infant, namely the 'Real', the 'Imaginary', and the 'Symbolic' (Evans, 1996: 50). In the Real stage, everything exists in its complete form, with no deficiency. Similarly, in the first stage of translation, there is no imperfection since all that is available is the source text (ST) which just needs to be comprehended by the translator. Here, s/he just needs to ‘absorb’ the ST textual material. In the Imaginary stage, the infant comes to make a distinction between him/her ‘self’ and the ‘other’. In a similar vein, after comprehending the ST, the translator strives to draw distinguishing lines between the ST textual material and the TL equivalents already formed in his mind. Therefore, in the second phase of translation, the translator detects equivalents for the SL imaginary signified entities. The translator assumes them to be the same as the ST. That is exactly where the target text (TT) or ‘translation’ gradually comes to existence. The symbolic stage is similar to the last stage of translation, namely the production phase where the TT becomes ready. At this stage, those signified entities in the mind of the translator become visible (either in the oral or written form) and constitute a unified whole called the TT.As the ‘other’ has a unique position in psychoanalytical issues, the same can be assumed for the position of the ST in translational issues. While translators do their best to create a uniquely perfect text in the target language and call him/herself its ‘creator’, it would never seem to be so simple to make such a claim, and that is why the act of translating seems to be an everlastingly unfinished task—a task which is sometimes associated by the act of self-revision on the translator him/herself, or is done by others in the form of ‘re-translations’, as a step towards reaching perfection or approaching as close as possible to that ‘ideal form’ in their minds. 

The current paper focused on a number of concepts in psychoanalysis through the lens of linguistics and Translation Studies, and aimed at exploring the potential abstract relation between Lacan’s ideas and some primary notions in the discipline of Translation Studies. An analytical comparison was also made between Lacanian Psychoanalytic Theories and that of Sigmund Freud’s.The process of child’s growth and concepts such as “The Real”, “The Imaginary”, and “The Symbolic” were expounded. Then, Freud’s and Lacan’s ideas on “Self”, “Other”, “unconscious”, “parents”, “Phallus”, “center” and its influence on the whole system were all comparatively analyzed. Finally, the relationship between the two psychoanalysts’ ideas and some notions in Translation Studies was investigated. To accomplish this, a number of key concepts in the field (e.g. text, text-typology, different types of translation, etc.) were initially discussed and then it was attempted to take a look at Lacan’s ideas through the spectacles of the TS.On balance, the findings, being perfectly in line with that of Afrouz’s (2019) study, revealed the existence of a special abstract relationship between Translation Studies and psychoanalysis.Prospective researchers are highly recommended to concentrate on the ideas offered by other prominent psychoanalysts and meticulously explore them through the lens of linguistic and TS theories. Furthermore, other comparative studies of such kind can potentially be conducted by competent researchers who are interested in ideas presented in Structuralisms, Post-structuralisms, Modernism, Post-modernism, Marxism, etc. and analytically compare them with theories in the TS and even, Interpreting Studies (IS).

Classical Kurdish literature contains a huge volume of Persian texts. A part of these texts is created in Baban literary school, which has been in continuous contact with Iran. (Ahmadi, 1395: 310) Some Kurdish poets, such as Salem and Mustafa Beig Kurdi, traveled to Tehran and were directly acquainted with the poets of that country, and, occasionally, engaged in capping verses.  Even a poet like Kurdi became a member of the Iranian Writers Association. (Ahmadi, 1395: 441) There are also anecdotes about his capping verses with Qaani. (Sajjadi, 1395: 323) To gain a scientific insight into the Persian poetry, embedded in Kurdish literature, it is essential to conduct a comprehensive literary-scientific study.The present research, with an analytical-descriptive perspective, intends to analyze the Persian poems of Kurdish poets from a cognitive point of view in terms of classification, type, stylistics, and theme. This is to identify linguistic-literary features, geographical-stylistic framework, and their forms during this study. 

In order to achieve an objective result, we limited the statistical population of the research to the poets of the nineteenth century, including Nali, Salem, Kurdi, Haji Qader Kooi, Vafaee, Sheikh Reza Talabani, Mahvi, Harigh, and Adab. We seek to provide and answer to the following questions:What place Kurdish poets had in composing Persian poetry?How has their connection been with Persian literature?In which style and field of Persian literature does their Persian poetry fit? 

By using phrases that have Kurdish equivalents, and occasionally appropriating Persian poetry or composing bilingual poems, Kurdish poets on the one hand have presented their level of familiarity and command of Persian language and literature, and, on the other hand, they have shown their interest and enthusiasm for it.   Statistical reviewStatistical studies show that a number of Kurdish poets have written Persian poetry in different proportions. Excerpts from these poems are listed as follows:Mustafa Beig Kordi: 18 out of a total 143Abdul Rahman Salem: 24 out of a total 406Nali: 5 out of a total 146Haji Qader Kooi: 14 out of a total 136Sheikh Reza Talabani: 4 out of a total 207Mahwi 102 out of a total 302Wafa’i: 88 out of a total 220Nari: 5 out of a total 81Mesbah al-Diwan Adab: 7 out of a total 140 poemsIn total, it should be said that ten percent of the volume of Kurdish Divan in this period is Persian poetry. Poetry themesFrom a thematic perspective, these poems are categorized in the framework of classical structures of the Persian poetry; in other words, the most important of these structures are lyric, ode, praise, satire, description (nature/spring), romantic-mystical mystery, and Sufism. Stylistic classificationFollowing an examination of such poems based on the characteristics of the styles, the results of the research show that a majority of them are categorized in the framework of the Iraqi style, and, to a small extent, in the domain of the Indian style. Poetry genresDifferent types of poetry can be found in the poetry of Kurdish poets: ghazal, ode, qat’e, mathnawi, tarkibband, tarji'band, quatrain, single couplets, mukhammas, musammat, etc. In this respect, there are similarities and correspondences with Persian poetry. (Ahmadi, 1395: 48) Other features of Persian poetry in Kurdish literatureSince these poets are multilingual, it is obvious that similar thoughts have penetrated into their Persian and Kurdish poetry. In expressing their concepts, the Kurdish poets have sometimes acted as if they have embarked on the approach of translating words, or it seems that the tone of their words is dominated by their mother tongue.In the Persian poetry of the Kurdish poets, we sometimes encounter colloquial expressions. For example, in poetic language, elements of slang are evident. Sometimes proverbs, famous sayings, and Kurdish epigrams have penetrated into the Persian poetry. The influence of religious literature, Quranic texts, and hadith on the poetry of Kurdish poets (both Kurdish and Persian), is obvious and frequent. (Mohamdi & Gaffari, 1395: 154-155) Famous poets of Persian literature have always cast a subtle shadow over Kurdish literature, which is reflected in various forms in Kurdish poetry as well as the Persian poetry of Kurdish poets. 

Persian poetry of Kurdish poets, from a stylistics perspective, is in the field of Iraqi style. Therefore, the Iraqi style of Persian poetry should be extended beyond the current borders to wherever the Kurds live. Some signs and convergences with the Indian style are evident in these poems. The most salient features of the Persian poetry of the Kurdish poets include:Using Kurdish tone and interpretationsTranslating Kurdish proverbs into PersianPrevalence of slangObvious influence of famous Iranian poets such as Hafez, Sa’di, and RumiInfluence of Kurdish poetsThematic commonalities in their Kurdish and Persian poetry

The scientific articles that are published in the periodicals of any country are among the most important scientific treasures of that country. One of the issues that has attracted the attention of researchers and literary critics is the analysis of humor and the works of humorists, as one of the most important tools for understanding the thoughts and cultures and social and political characteristics of different societies. The literature of every society, with the help of the element of humor, goes against the unfavorable situations of the society, and on its way, it causes changes in different aspects, and this affects such social, political and cultural fields and is mutually affected by them. Therefore, satirical studies provide us with valuable information about various political, social and cultural issues of different societies. On the other hand, with the growth and development of comparative studies, the researchers of different nations have investigated and compared humor and the works of their humorists with different nations and investigated their differences and similarities and the causes and contexts of these similarities and differences as well as their impact on They have shown interest in each other. Today, we see many comparative studies in the field of humor studies. By examining and analyzing the content of comparative humor research articles, this research shows the quantity and quality of these articles, and to what extent they are written based on the scientific principles of comparative studies, and what are their strengths and weaknesses. 

This research has analyzed 39 comparative scientific articles in the field of humor research using the content analysis method. First, by using famous Persian websites such as Noormags.ir, Magiran.com, Humanities Comprehensive Portal, Academic Jihad Scientific Database (SID.ir), etc. Either the abstract or the keywords of comparative literature and humor have been used, it was determined, then the articles were reviewed and evaluated according to the criteria approved by comparative literature, and the results were determined on the graph. 

Pathology of comparative satirical essaysIn order to explain the meaning of comparative literature, we should linger more in front of its concept, to remove what the comparative researchers have wrongly put in the category of comparative literature. In this section, the pathology of comparative research in the field of humor has been discussed under the two topics of subject matter and research methodology, and cases such as methodology in research, incomplete understanding of comparative literature and only finding similarities and differences in works, having creativity and innovation, addressing generalizations. And inattention to details, lack of use of reliable scientific sources, ignorance or knowledge of the principles of comparative literature have been examined in researches. 

A high frequency of articles written in the field of comparative studies, inspired by the word (adaptation), have limited themselves to comparing the similarities and differences of two works and have chosen the title (comparative review) for their articles; Now that comparative literature has important principles that it is international and intercultural and interdisciplinary, examining the influence and influences of cultures and works of literature on each other, important factors and contexts in the influence of one culture on another culture and why and how the similarities and differences are, and also examining The transformative elements are among the most important of these principles. In the list of sources of most of the comparative articles published in the field of humor studies, not even one of the reliable and important sources of the field of comparative studies can be seen, and even in some cases, no comparison has been made regarding the similarities and differences, and throughout the article, only the word comparative is mentioned in the title. The articles written in the field of comparative literature lack structure and scientific content in most cases, the research method is not given, or the term (descriptive analysis based on comparison) is sufficient, and only a handful of articles refer to the American or French school of comparative literature is mentioned. The articles that have the necessary knowledge about comparative literature are those that, while referring to the concept of comparative studies, have introduced their research outside of the comparative field.

Synaesthesia is a rhetorical and artistic device. This figure of speech is derived from the combination of two senses or the paradigmatic relations between senses. Poets use this rhetorical device to broaden their imagination in order to create beautiful and impressive imagery that adds to the poetic aspects of the text. This artistic device aims at increasing audiences' literary perception or pleasure by deviating from norms and foregrounding literary conceptions. So, it allows the poets to communicate their feelings to the audience. The present study seeks to examine synaesthesia in two poetry collections, “Don’t Apologize for what You’ve Done ” by Mahmoud Darwish and “From the Fire from the Silk” by Qahar Asi. This descriptive-analytical study, undertaken using the quantitative and comparative literature methods, revealed that both poets employed the aforementioned literary device frequently. Therefore, the remarkable frequency of synaesthesia might be attributed to Asi and Darwish's poetic style. It should be noted that these poets have employed synaesthesia in distinct manners by connecting it to the content, intellectual, and emotional features of their poems.

 Desk research and document mining were used to collect the data. The content was organized using a descriptive-analytic method based on the American school framework for comparative studies. The authors also apply a quantitative research approach to explain and evaluate synaesthesia in the abovementioned works.

 Synaesthesia is an illusory technique of integrating two senses and perceiving one via the other or attributing the characteristics of one to the other. This literary device has been recognized as a significant technique in Persian and Arabic literature because it can pique the audience's attention while also transmitting the poet's sentiments and spiritual experiences. Synaesthesia enables the poet to broaden his or her imaginative horizon and create fantastically impressive imageries, which enhances the poetic effect of a text. “This creative device combines or substitutes one of the human senses with the other one. In this regard, it links the characteristics of one sense to the other. Needless to say, synaesthesia covers not only the five senses but also the abstract senses” (Golchin & Rashidi, 2011: 297). This artistic device is built on a “proclivity to change and combine.” For example, the poet may use this rhetorical device to alter the sense of smell so that audiences experience it via the senses of taste, hearing, and touch, or they see colors through sounds and hear sounds through colors (Modirzadeh Tehrani, 2020: 84-85). Furthermore, by using this aesthetic technique, the poet seeks to create innovative conceptions (Sheikh, 2010: 129).     Mahmoud Darwish and Qahar Asi are two poets who employed synaesthesia to create innovative literary imagery and elegantly express the intended meaning and sentiments. Given the following basic classification, we can analyze the use of synaesthesia in these poet's works:     The first type of synaesthesia is “horizontal harmony”. It results from the combination of two senses, such as sight and hearing, hearing and sight, sight and taste, sight and touch, touch and sight, and so on. The integration of hearing and sight senses is often highlighted in these poets’ works. As a result, this aesthetic combination has caught the poets' attention more than others. The explanation for it might be Mahmoud Darwish's and Qahar Asi's exceptional sight and hearing senses since both have seen war and its devastating effects: both poets can detail the explosion of the shells, cries of the war-torn, and visions of people’s suffering via such a combination.     Vertical harmony is the second form of synaesthesia. Here, poets do not confine themselves to integrating merely two senses: they blend terms related to five senses with terms that represent abstract concepts, creating attractive imagery. In this case, the poet may brilliantly express his mental imagination by using literal devices that render the abstract notions evident (Hassanli, 2004: 282-283). The poets in question have employed a synthesis of sight sense and abstract ideas more frequently since sight is one of the most essential human senses and allows people to interact with their surroundings. The combination of this sense and imagination results in the creation of innovative imagery. Mahmoud Darwish and Qahar Asi transmit their experiences and thoughts vividly via such artistic combination, contributing to the creation of novel ideas in the realm of poetry. 

The findings reveal that, although the poets employed synaesthesia in different manners, what counts is that they established a relationship between the way they use this literary device and the content, ideas, and feelings they attempted to convey via their poetry.     The most notable aspects of these poets’ collections are their intentional use of the aforementioned literary device and its harmony with the theme. According to the sample analysis, synaesthesia has transformed the poems into creative poetry and has been used to convey meaning and increase the literary impression communicated to the audience. Mahmoud Darwish and Qahar Asi have used various types of synaesthesia in their verses on occasion, demonstrating their inventiveness in using this literary device. Darwish’s poetry employs the following synaesthesia combinations (horizontal axis) frequently: (1) sight-hearing combination; (3) hearing-sight combinations; (1) sight-taste combination; (1) sight-touch combination; (2) touch-taste combinations; (2) smell-sight combinations; and (1) taste-smell combination. Darwish's use of synaesthesia on the vertical axis (the combining of five senses with abstract concepts) is also frequent. Accordingly, there are (8) sight-abstract concept combinations; (3) touch-abstract concept combinations; (1) hearing-abstract concept combination; and (1) smell-abstract concept combination. Qahar Asi’s frequency use of synaesthesia in the horizontal axis is as follows: (2) sight-hearing combinations; (5) hearing-sight combinations; (2) sight-taste combinations; (1) touch-sight combination; (2) sight-smell combinations; (1) smell-hearing combination; (1) hearing-smell combination; and (2) hearing-touch combinations. Furthermore, his use of synaesthesia on the vertical axis (the combining of five senses with abstract concepts) is as follows: (15) sight-abstract concept combinations; (1) abstract concept-sight combination; (4) abstract concept-hearing combinations; (1) smelling-abstract concept combination; (1) abstract concept-touch combination; (2) touch-abstract concept combinations.     According to statistical analysis, the most common use of this literary technique on the horizontal axis is synaesthesia created by the hearing-sight senses. Furthermore, sight-abstract concepts are the most often utilized combination in the poets' collections on the vertical axis. In general, we may say that these poets' most active senses are sight and hearing. One explanation for such a focus on these senses might be because poets' sight and hearing senses were stronger than other senses: these dedicated poets had seen shell explosions and terrible wartime scenes. As a result, the combination of various sensations, known as synaesthesia, allows these poets to more clearly depict the sound of war-torn cries and scenes from people's suffering.

Critical discourse analysis explains about how and why discourse is produced. Mystics intuitively obtain a unique language that needs to be deciphered, which is "the product of ideology" (Vodak,2001: 115). Bayazid and Roozbehan have also produced and recreated their distinct mystical discourse according to their ideology by choosing specific words and syntax. This study aims to answer this main question: How did the two mystics represent their mystical world and circumstances? Furthermore, to show possible differences and similarities.

In this research, with the analytical-comparative method and based on the analysis of Fairclough's critical discourse, the ascension of Bayazid Bastami and Roozbehan Baqli has been analyzed. Based on this, three paragraphs of Bayazid and Roozbehan Baqli's Ascension Letter have been selected as a textual body. Then the authors' critical language is analyzed and interpreted in verbal and cryptic signs. Fairclough offers a ten-question model for descriptive-level text analysis to reveal the implications of language. The first seven questions are based on empirical, relational and expressive values that the formal features of the text have. Words or syntactic constructions show empirical, relational, and expressive values. These values have an abstract, practical or action meaning. The eighth question deals with the coherence of in-text and out-of-text. The ninth question examines the interactive systems in discourse, and the tenth question deals with the structure of the text in advancing the author's goals. 

At the description levelThe words "looking with the truth, seeing the truth with the truth" show Bayazid's attempt to destroy egoism. Bazid pays much attention to God. He thinks of the destruction of ego. The Ascension is based on a revelation he saw in his youth. His revelations are formed in the state of sleep, sleep and wakefulness or awakening.3-2. At the level of interpretationBayazid shows that every action has a proportionate reaction. There are a lot of declarative sentences and active in his words, so he is able, not defeated. Roozbehan Baqli also claims that a needle from God has been opened on him. He has advanced in the stage of purification. Roozbehan saw the sea, the island and the palace of Quds differently before his Ascension, but after his Ascension (the state he has experienced), he sees the sea, the island and the palace of Quds as one. In his ascension letter, God, angels and Khidr are present. The dialogue between God, Khidr and the hadith of the mystic soul has been reported. Roozbehan Baqli thinks about death, seeks refuge in God from evil, and receives refuge and good news from God.  3-3. Analysis of two ascents at the level of explanation In explaining, socio-cultural structures and relations are considered. Socio-cultural issues are non-discourse and are a subset of discourse practice. Fairclough calls discourse a "social matrix of discourse" (Jorgensen & Phillips, 2014: 149). Bayazid is a distinguished figure in Iranian mysticism. He is closer to the original Islam. Free will and effort are the two pillars of Bayazid's conduct. Of course, he does not consider effort alone to be sufficient and believes that it can not be achieved with effort alone, nor can it be achieved without effort. His mystical discourse is human endeavour snd free will. This discourse becomes less and less in the following periods as far as there is a roughness in the mysticism of Ibn Arabi (Hakima and Mohseninia, 1396: 36). The principle of Khorasan mysticism is to pay pure attention to God and know the unreal (virtual) existence. After Bayazid, this discourse becomes less and more attention is paid to non-God (world). The mystics of later periods pay attention to the world, the relation of the world with God, the relation of man to God, and the relation of man to the world; they give originality to man and the world. This view starts from Hallaj and is extreme in Ibn Arabi and his subjects. Therefore, attention to man has started from Hallaj and can be seen in his followers, disciples and influencers. Roozbehan Baqli is influenced by Hallaj. By describing some of Hallaj's circumstances and speeches, he has linked Persian Sufism with the Baghdad school.Next point: Roozbehan Baqli's social, economic and political conditions are different from Bayazid's social, economic and political conditions. Roozbehan lived in a time when thinkers did not have a good opportunity to express their talents and express their thoughts; as a result, they had to enter monasteries. This causes the mystic to be isolated and distanced from society. The same monasteries were also built by princes and ministers and were governed by their policies. An example of the socio-political situation of that time: Roozbehan Baqli did not greet the ruler of Shiraz and threatened the ruler of Roozbehan. The fact that the jurists, scholars and thinkers had to welcome the ruler shows the prosperous society. In the end, it is reminded that mystical discourse is formed on the non-existence of God (unity). Unity is the axis of mystical discourse that manifests itself in annihilation and unity. Manifestation, austerity, seeking, diligence, prayer, discipleship, etc., find meaning with the centrality of unity. Mystical discourse is spectral. The farther away from the centre (unity), the less mystical discourse fades. The original mystical discourse is formed on the non-existence of beings and the absolute existence of God. Seekers of the path of God actively strive to achieve such knowledge, and the authorities pass the conduct home, so the identity of the seeker is formed on the axis of non-existence, and the spectrum of selfishness and selfishness, non-intuition and non-desire in the seeker become less and less and true monotheism. 

Applying analytical comparative method, this study has reviewed parts of the ascension of Bayazid Bastami and Roozbehan Baqli based on Norman Fairclough model. The results indicated that Bayazid and Roozbehan have produced and recreated their distinct mystical discourse by choosing specific vocabularies and syntax. Revelation, dialogue, and manifestation are the three common pillars of Bayazid and Baqli, but the intellectual, ideological, and mystical structure of each has subtle differences. Bayazid's mystical discourse is formed on the basis of me (Man) / God (Him) and there is no mediator in it that during the purification of the soul and divine attraction, human annihilation and human identity become impossible by perishing in Truth, and nothing but Truth remains. but Roozbehan's discourse is formed around the characters of Roozbehan (humans), angels, Khezr and God. In this discourse, angels are the mediators between he and God, and Khezr is the symbol of Man’s old man and guide. Meanwhile, at the end of Bayazid's ascension, all his attributes, his gestures and his language became monotheistic, but Roozbehan was asking God for a good end. Roozbehan was afraid of death and Bayazid passed away. Bayazid's contribution to the original Iranian mysticism is far more prominent than Roozbehan. Bayazid Bastami's mystical discourse is based on Bayazid / God. Moreover, free will is prominent in his discourse. This discourse resets the two concepts of human endeavour, seriousness and promotion in this world and the hereafter. Bayazid is distinguished by certainty and hearing the voice of God, and interacting with God. Roozbehan Baqli Mystical Discourse is formed around the personalities of Baqli / angels, the older man and God. One side is the Baqli and the other side is the angels, the older man and God. His discourse is in the spectrum of monotheism. Roozbehan Baqli's emphasis is on happiness. These two ideas (Bayazid's thought and Roozbehan's thought) have created two different methods Bayazid's discourse is based on God. There is no mediator; he speaks the truth and with him.On the other hand, in Roozbehan's discourse, there are mediators such as Khidr and angels. Bayazid's discourse seeks to be God-centered and unjustly destroyed. The social situation of Bayazid's time, his influence on Islam and his discipleship with Imam Sadegh (AS), which many scholars have accepted, have been effective in producing his discourse. In contrast, Roozbehan Baqli has a more humanistic and ontological thought, so he pays more attention to the status of man and the place of existence than Bayazid. Given the political and social situation of his time, this idea has led to the production of a humane and ontological discourse in which the desire for personal growth and prosperity and the emphasis on proportional determinism are seen. Baqli sees himself as a chosen one, which is his special revelation, and any self-identification is far removed from the truth of God alone (absolute existence).

In the contemporary period, after the time the Orientals have gotten to know the culture and civilization of the west, the thoughts, tendencies and modernist courses found a way into these countries. One of these impressive courses in different fields was Feminism. With a growing acceleration, this course penetrated in countries like Iran in society and political areas as well as literature in general and fiction in particular and led to the manifestation of Feministic literature. In the literature of Iran, a new generation of women writers has emerged, in particular since the 1970s so far and Feministic reflections have appeared in fiction in varied forms. Among Iranian writers, Fariba Vafi in Dream of Tibet and among Canadian writers Margaret Atwood in The Robber Bride impressed by Feministic ideas and by having a critical outlook on women’s issues have endeavoured to reflect in their fiction, social, cultural and economic inequalities and gender discriminations which are affected by the clichés made in a patriarchal system and to exhibit a communicative and clear picture of women’s condition in their societies. 

The present study attempts to investigate Fariba Vafi and Margaret Atwood’s attitude in the presentation of women’s pivotal role and the reflection of their issues in Dream of Tibet and The Robber Bride based on a descriptive- analytic approach to discover the common outlook of these two writers about women’s problems. The methodology is based on a comparative approach of the American Feministic school and the analytic approach is posterior (from part to whole). 

 In this part, the most important Feministic elements in Dream of Tibet and The Robber Bride are analyed and the outlooks of these two writers in Women’s problems are compared.3-1. Mirror; the embodiment of women’s identity and personification Emphasizing women’s identity and personification is one of the distinguished characteristics of women writers’ writing style. In Vafi and Atwood’s attitude, mirror is the embodiment of women’s personification and identity. Hence mirror is the most frequent common motif in these two novels. Indeed, both authors have utilized mirror in the meaning of womenlike’s identity and representation and reflection of feelings. With regards to the attempts of both authors in reperesnting women’s problems in stories and the frequent descriptions of mirror and woman’s association, it seems that both of them have synonymized mirror and the story in aspect of their function in exposing women’s identity and personification.3-2. Correspondence in women’s characterization  One of the common characteristics of Dream of Tibet and The Robber Bride is the correspondence and similarity in women’s character and characterization. Both Vafi and Atwood in their womanly narration, by underlining women’s pivotal role, have narrated women’s stories that each of them have faced various challenges in their individual and social life. It seems that Fariba Vafi, affected by Atwood’s narrative style and by distinguishing women’s basic role, has discussed their individual and social concerns. The world of Vafi’s fictional characters like the world of Atwood’s characters is the universe of basic uncertainties.3-3. Reflection of women’s problems by the use of futuristic and retrospective narrative One of the common characteristics of Vafi and Atwood’s narrative style in depicting women’s issues is the use of repetition frequency and futuristic and retrospective narrative. By emphasizing on and protesting to women’s individual and social crisis, both Vafi and Atwood have used the repetition frequency in diffirent parts of their novels. Both authors in accordance with the presentation of women’s problems have used the repetition frequency wherever thay have emphasized on the importance of a specific discusson. Regarding the use of retrospective technique and with attention to the narrative style of The Robber Bride in which the narrator has used flashback or returning to character’s past in order to narrate Zenia’s pre-death incidents; Atwood has used this technique much more than Vafi.3-4. Precise and detailed descriptions in womanly writing style One of distinguished characteristics of women’s writing style is their particular attention to the precise and detailed description of every incident. But a particular and unique feature in Vafi and Atwood’s own style is that both, highly attentive, have painted their descriptions in womanly color and fragrance. The commitment of these two writers to the accurate description of wearing details and the color and body of women characters in the stories have been depicted in several ways. 3-5. The interactive - conversational method in womanly writing One of the common characteristics in these two novels is that both authors have used interactive conversational method. In this method, Vafi and Atwood by establishing conversations between women characters have pointed to women’s interaction with each other. This womanly interactive - conversational interaction has formed by changing the pronoun of “I” to “we” in both novels. Hence, transition of “I” to “we” is a kind of opposition to patriarchal discourse. 

 After analyzing Dream of Tibet and The Robber Bride it can be concluded that there are considerable similarities and homogenies among the main characters of two novels regarding their emotional and mental conditions, behavioral actions and individual experiences. By emphasizing women’s basic role and correspondence in their characterization, Vafi and Atwood delineate the problems of women of different classes in their own society. By comparing the role of women in two novels, we can achieve similarities. The Correspondences between Tony and Sholeh, Zinya and Forough as a rebellious woman and Rose and Chris and Shiva are some examples of these similarities in women’s role. Among other correspondences used by the authors is the purposeful use of mirror as a symbolic meaning of womanly identity which is the most frequent common motif. Both Vafi and Atwood use the repetition frequency to emphasis on and highlight women’s individual and social problems, futuristic narrative to uncover women’s mental agitations and concerns and their reaction to upcoming incidents, the restrospective narrative to review mental memories and to return to past dreams. Using woman language vocabularies and precise, detailed descriptions, frequent use of adjectives and nouns and precise, detailed descriptions of women’s clothes, colors and body are among other similarities in womanly writing method in these two novels. Despite abundant common details in content and the form of author’s narrative method and considering Atwood’s time priority, it can be concluded that Vafi has been slightly affected by Atwood as a stylist, pioneer writer in fiction and her reflection of women’s problems.

The novel "Rood-e-Ravi" the famous work of "Abutorab Khosravi" has interesting values ​​and characteristics in terms of language, structure, story elements and narrative techniques, which deserves to be examined and identified from different angles and has attracted the attention of many researchers. Among them: "Analysis of Mythological Elements in Rood e Ravi" written by "Pooran Alizadeh" (2016), "Deep Mythology of Rood e Ravi" written by "Teymoor Malmir" (2017) and a review of the recent article by "Narjes Al-Sadat Sangi" (2009) and numerous dissertations written about it in different universities.The characteristics governing the structure and narration methods of "Rood e Ravi" indicate that this novel has clear and superior postmodernist effects among different schools of story writing. Therefore, one of the necessary aspects of examining this narrative - which has been neglected until now - is examining it from the perspective of postmodernism, which will determine its place among the postmodern works of Iran and the world. On the other hand, postmodernity itself has many dimensions and ambiguities. So, "if someone seeks to find the features of postmodernism in the novel, he will probably never reach his goal" (Abvisani, 2011:5). Therefore, in the review of the mentioned novel, it is sufficient to base the reflective opinions of one of the prominent theorists and writers of postmodernist works, that is, "John Barth", which has a more specific framework among the diverse and numerous intellectual bases available. 

By reflecting on the fiction and research works of "John Barth" and citing research such as the article "Postmodern Novel" written by "Hossein Payande" in which a part of John Barth's views is explained in the article "Enrichment Literature" and from Important and valid backgrounds are considered for the present article, John Barth's opinions can be summarized as follows:According to Barth, in order to liberate literature from the impasse of depletion caused by the disillusionment of writers - which itself was the result of the consequences of industrialization and excessive modernity - the rehabilitation and enrichment of literature as an undeniable necessity must be in the spotlight. Considering the social and cultural conditions of the post-modern era and the exemplary use of pioneering works in this field, this major motive and ultimate goal (that is, enrichment of literature) is possible with the following mechanisms, as intermediate motives or intermediate goals:Focusing on the narrative self and the appropriate style of narration instead of the subject of the narration.The reduction of the author's undisputed dominance, which implies an increase in the position of the characters in the advancement of the narrative, and the strengthening of the reader's role in drawing and understanding the implicit meaning of the work.Focusing the meaning and content of the work on the philosophical issues and dilemmas of the postmodern era.The technical methods of writing and narration emphasized by John Barth to achieve these goals are:Creative mixing of dissonant things and incompatible elements, such as reality and imagination, pre-modern and post-modern, etc.Inserting images and content from other works during the narration.Metafiction.Involvement of real characters in plot.Multiple in viewing angles.Emphasizing the elements of language and rhetoric and showing off the act of writing.Ontological content and dealing with thought-provoking ontological issues in the postmodern era.In the upcoming research, the text of Rood e Ravi is studied based on these indicators and examples related to each are extracted, categorized and analyzed. The close connection of these components with each other makes the use of one of them in the narrative lead to the emergence of other indicators and propositions with a lot of common evidence and examples. For example, the mixing of multiple issues and topics is a general indicator that includes other postmodern features, such as multiple viewpoints, writing variety, frequent suspension of the narrative, and irregularity of time, etc. Postmodernism uses this combination as an effective method to highlight the new narrative style with various postmodernist indicators (Ref: Payande, 2007:25). Therefore, the author tries to prevent the unnecessary increase of clauses and titles, infrequently used indicators in the discussed narrative, under the frequently used ones -which components are considered the main research- should be investigated. 

The study of Rood e Ravi based on the specified components shows:The creative mixing of disparate things includes almost all the story elements and narrative components of this work (tone, point of view, opposite and contradictory concepts, and setting, etc.) with many examples. The foundation of plot narration is based on the falsification of history and the variety of writing styles and old or new writing types. A significant part of the text of the narrative is the inclusion of detailed materials from sources created by the author in new and old styles along with seven pictures (caricatures) attributed to old sources. Overt and covert referring to the story itself during the narration is another feature of this novel, which is less useful compared to other components.The dominant semantic element in Rood e Ravi is the philosophical doubts and thought-provoking ontological ambiguities, which is influenced by the post-modern "uncertainty" thought and flows throughout the narrative as an unsolved mystery and traces of it can be seen in all elements and components. Even text-building words such as the high frequency of doubt restrictions and verbs that have a doubtful function (as if, it is said, they said, etc.) are carriers to reflect this meaning. But the most important components and methods that have a deep connection with this topic are: the unknown nature of the characters, the types of metamorphosis and the sameness of the characters. 

The investigation and analysis of Rood e Ravi with a postmodernist approach shows that this novel can be counted among Iranian postmodern works and a localized example of global postmodernism. In this localized sample, the use of various methods - which gives a significant prominence to the dimension of narration and the quality of the design of meaning - does not lead to the insignificant effect of meaning and the trivialization of the Hegelian-based semantics that governs Iranian works, and these deconstructive methods do not follow the extreme enigma and divisiveness of the narrative.The most important postmodernist component in Rood e Ravi (both quantitatively and qualitatively) is the "falsification of history" which is used in an intertextual and parodic way and has led to the appearance of the most postmodernist effects; The most widely used of them is to challenge history and create doubt in those things that are known as reality, and it leads to raising ontological questions in the minds of the audience. Khosravi raises these issues not only by using narrative techniques, but also expresses them directly and prominently in the content of dialogues and descriptions of the text.Petrification and dogmatism arising from ignorance and misplaced prejudices, superstition and stratification, hypocrisy etc., and the moral and social harms caused by them are the usual and widely used concepts in literary works that are narrated in a different way in Rood e ravi.Khosravi mixes the hypocritical asceticism of "Meftahi" and the superficial modernity of "Rezashahi" (in his opinion) with tricks such as metafiction and falsification of history in such a way that as if, like repeated and continuous images in two opposite mirrors, they display the fundamental disease of deception and pretense throughout history.

In Ibn Fadlan's travelogue, cultural-ideological images of Iranian, Turkish, Saqaliba, and Russian people are prominent and can be analyzed and studied from the perspective of imagology. Imagology is a branch of comparative literature concerned with the study of cross-national images of countries and personalities expressed in literary works, periods, or schools. Imagology believes that image is the outcome of the difference between "I" and " the other" and between "here" and "there". Despite the importance of Ibn Fadlan's travelogue - as the first travelogue of a Muslim to European countries consisting of descriptions of Iranian and the Turks, - and the significant role of imagology as an interdisciplinary field of study in literary studies, no research has been conducted on this travelogue concerning the imagology of nations. In this research, for the first time, the images of the four mentioned nations are presented based on the method of imagology from the perspective of cultural-ideological images. 

To compare Ibn Fadlan’s views on different nations, we first examined and classified the presented cultural-ideological images of the nations. On this basis, thirteen cultural-ideological images that had the highest frequency among different nations were identified. Then, we compared the images related to each subject in different nations and analyzed the reasons for presenting positive, negative, or neutral images about each nation. Accordingly, the purpose of the trip, religious relations and historical background of the nations in question, and the cultural and religious status of the author and his country were identified as the main reasons for his view. 

Cultural-ideological images refer to those images about a nation’s religious or folk beliefs, as well as their manner of thinking, customs, and behaviors. These items generally include differences between own and other cultures and issues such as hospitality customs, male-female relationships, kinship customs, and the manner of guest reception and marriage. 1. HospitalityIn general, all the images of Iranians and Saqalibas about hospitality are positive, and most of the images of Turks are negative, the main reason being the higher cultural and social level of Iranians and Bulgarians compared with the Turks; This, is related to the dependence of the Samanid and Saqaliba governments at that time on the Abbasid caliph and the religious commonalities of the two nations with Ibn Fadlan. 2. Manner of paying respectThe way two peoples of Turk and Saqaliba respected others can indicate the higher level of civilization of Saqalibas compared to Turks. The prestige of Turks in giving a gift is greatly degraded to the level of prostration; but even in the face of their king, Saqalibas considered it sufficient to take off their hats. 3. Dealing with the patientsIbn Fadlan portrays a cruel and violent image of Turks and Russians when encountering the sick.   4. PunishmentsOne of the cases to which Ibn Fadlan paid special attention is the punishment of various crimes among different nations. One reason for that is his religious status. As a religious scholar, he paid special attention to these matters and mentioned the punishment of adultery, sodomy, and theft. The most severe punishment applied by Turks and Saqalibas was for adultery. 5. HealthPresenting some images of not observing the health issues and the filthiness of Russians and Turks in Ibn Fadlan's travelogue, on the one hand, indicates his cleanliness and observance of public health by his place of residence, and on the other hand, shows cultural and civic backwardness of Russians and Turks. 6. Food and housingIdentifying the food habits of different nations, also inferred Ibn Fadlan’s taste for food. 7. Description of appearance, jewelry, and clothingThe clothing of each nation has a direct relationship with their type of climate. Also, some cultural and ideological aspects can be understood from the appearance and clothing of nations. 8. Islamic beliefs and idolatryIbn Fadlan has pointed out the great interest of Saqalibas and Iranians in caliphs and Islam. On the contrary, what he says about Russians and Turks shows their idolatry and polytheism. The images related to their beliefs are presented negatively and accompanied by insulting words. 9. Funeral and mourning ceremoniesOne of the rituals Ibn Fadlan described in full detail is the strange method of burial among Turks and Russians. But the burial rites of Bulgarians are similar to those of dead Muslims. 10. Superstitious beliefsImages of superstitions, especially among Turks and Saqalibas, attracted the attention of Ibn Fadlan. 11. Manner of dividing the inheritanceThe division of inheritance among Saqalibas was different from the Islamic rules, so Ibn Fadlan tried to correct it; But in the case of the Russians, he merely reported images.   12. TempersIbn Fadlan also gave information about the temper of Turks. These images are generally negative and show the savagery of these tribes. 13. Rituals of kinshipThe images of Saqalibas show the privileged place of grandfather in the family. 

A total of 46 minor images can be derived from the 13 mentioned major images. The frequency of images is as follows: Turks with 14 images, Saqalibas with 13 images, Russians with 11 images, and Iranians with 8 images. The main reason for this frequency is the profound differences in cultural and ideological assumptions of Ibn Fadlan especially with Turks and Russians, which made him express those images. The fact that the second rank belongs to Saqalibas can be rooted in Ibn Fadlan's mission to teach Islamic rules to those people, so he focused more on images related to their cultural and religious affairs. Due to the great similarity between Ibn Fadlan's ecosystem and Iranian cities, the least amount of images is assigned to this nation.From Ibn Fadlan’s evaluative point of view, the highest level of negative images is attributed to the Turks (10 images), which is due to their primitive and superstitious customs and beliefs and its contradiction with the brilliant culture of Islam in Baghdad at that time. The next rank belongs to Russians, who in addition to previous reason had geographical and human differences with Ibn Fadlan’s ecosystem. This difference attracted his attention especially because of his religious mentality. He negatively evaluated any discrepancy between the images and Islamic norms. This is also true for Saqalibas, where the four negative images presenting them are inconsistent with Islamic norms and customs. Presenting only one negative image of Iran, which is about the cold climate and type of thick clothes that Iranians wore, indicates that he did not have a negative view of this nation. In contrast, the expression of three positive images of Iranians, three positive images of Saqalibas, and only one positive image of each of the Turkish and Russian nations shows his positive view of Iran, which can be due to Iran’s cultural, ideological, and political alignment with the Caliphate of Baghdad. Saqalibas’ being Muslim and receiving him with hospitality, had also a positive impact on Ibn Fadlan's evaluation of this nation. The positive image of Turks was due to their alignment with Islamic rules, and the positive image of Russians was due to the good economy of the region, like that of Baghdad’s. The expression of 16 neutral images also indicates the descriptive attitude of Ibn Fadlan in many cases and that he tried to show his objective point of view in those cases.

The emergence of Islamic literature can be considered as coinciding with the emergence of Islam; however, the literary theories that have been used based on Islam and as theories of Islamic literature have occurred in the contemporary period. For the first time in India, Abolhassan Nadvi introduced the theory of Islamic literature and held various congresses to invite people to Islamic literature. He also formed the Association for the Relationship of World Islamic Literature. Under his supervision, many activities were carried out in the field of inviting to Islamic literature and supporting the theorists, writers and activists of Islamic literature in this association. Following Abolhassan Nadvi’s  invitation, many writers responded to his request. Some of them theorized in the field of Islamic literature. Among them, five are considered as the main theorists of Islamic literature, which consist of Abul Hassan Nadvi in India; Sayyid Qutb, Muhammad Qutb, and Najib Kilani in Egypt; and Emad al-Din Khalil in Iraq.   

This research has been done using descriptive-analytical and content analysis methods. In it, the statements and statements of the theorists of Islamic literature about Persian language poets and Persian language are discussed. In the meantime, he has relied on the books of Abu al-Hassan Nadvi, Muhammad Qutb, Sayyid Qutb, Najib Kilani, and Emad al-Din Khalil, as the main theorists of Islamic literature. 

What is important to consider is that the theorists whose names have been mentioned, in their theorizing, and to prove Islamic literature, have cited the poetry of Persian and non-Iranian Persian poets. Among the poets who have had the most influence on the theorists of Islamic literature are: Mohammad Iqbal Lahori, Maulana Jalaluddin Mohammad (Rumi), Hafez, Saadi, and some other Iranian poets, and some other poets whose names have merely been mentioned in the researches of these theorists consist of Sanai, Attar Neyshabouri, Khayyam, customary, Iraqi, Ghodsi, etc. It goes without saying that if Najib Kilani, Mohammad Qutb, Sayyid Qutb, and Emad al-Din Khalil speak of Iqbal, his poetry, and his Islamic thought, or if they refer to the poetry of Saadi, Hafez, and other Persian-speaking poets as Islamic literature, all are due to the efforts of the first theorist of Islamic literature in India called Abolhassan Nadvi. Following him, other theorists also benefited from his achievements. In addition, they paid special attention to the literature of Persian speakers and especially Iranian poets. Accordingly, Persian language literature, especially Iranian literature, has had a significant impact on the emergence of theories of Islamic literature.The position and influence of Persian and Persian poets on theorists of Islamic literatureNadvi's acquaintance with Persian literature got him to pay special attention to Iranian literature. Had it not been for his efforts to introduce the Persian language and Islamic literature to Persian poets, other theorists of Islamic literature would have neglected the most important source of Islamic literature. As a result, this is why we see that the amount and volume of dealing with Persian language and literature of Persian language poets in Nadvi is more than other theorists of Islamic literature. Among the theorists, following Nadvi, poets like Najib Kilani and Mohammad Qutb inclined toward Iqbal Lahori’s literature. Emad al-Din Khalil's tendency is towards the poetry of Rumi and Saadi. In the meantime, Hafez has had a great impact on Sayyid Qutb.The influence of Persian poets on theorists of Islamic literatureAfter examining the position of Persian language and literature on theorists of Islamic literature, we examine the influence of the most important Persian language poets on theorists of Islamic literature. Meanwhile, we examine four prominent poets consisting of Mohammad Iqbal Lahori, Maulana Jalaluddin Mohammad, Hafez and Saadi Shirazi.Mohammad Iqbal LahoriIqbal Lahori can be considered the first and most important Persian poet who has had the great impact on the formation of Islamic literature. His acquaintance with Abul Hassan Al-Nadvi and their meetings may be the basis of Nadvi's motivation to invite him to Islamic literature. In addition to the meeting between Nadvi and Mohammad Iqbal, Abolhassan Nadvi's acquaintance with the Persian caused him to become acquainted with the poems and thoughts of Mohammad Iqbal. The more he became acquainted with Iqbal's literature and thoughts, the more he became influenced by Iqbal. In addition to Iqbal's poetry and his Islamic characteristics, another important point about Iqbal that Nadvi pays attention to is the very character of a Muslim writer. He sees this character in Iqbal.Another theorist of Islamic literature, Mohammad Qutb, views Iqbal's poetry as an excellent model of Islamic literature. In his famous book "Islamic Methodology", he introduces his poetry as a successful example in Islamic literature. In reviewing Iqbal's poetry, Mohammad Qutb shows the human and Islamic dimension of his poetry. In addition, the human dimension of his poetry considers him universal, which is rooted in Islamic thought and ideas.Egyptian theorist of Islamic literature Najib Kilani was also influenced by Iqbal's poems. Although he was not familiar with Persian language, Dr. Abdul Wahab Azzam's translations of Iqbal's poems were enough to draw Kilani to Islamic literature. Kilani wrote the book Iqbal al-Sha'ir al-Tha'ir while in prison (for his political activities). Like Nadvi, Kilani admired Iqbal and was influenced by him. Kilani  also appreciates Iqbal on a number of occasions and he acknowledges his influence on his poetry.Emad al-Din Khalil, a theorist of Iraqi Islamic literature, is also influenced by Iqbal in his poems. To the extent that Hafez Abdul Qadir reveals this influence in his review of Emad al-Din Khalil's DivanJalaluddin Muhammad BalkhiAbul Hassan Nadvi mentions Rumi as another example of Muslim writers who has taken steps to enhance Islamic literature, and in his literature he traces the subtle human characteristics such as love, beauty and human worth. Nadvi in the book "Comments on Literature" in a chapter entitled "Literature of love, affection, respect for man and humanity in the poetry of Maulana Jalaluddin Rumi" introduces Maulana and his literature. Rumi's Islamic poetry is mentioned as a beginning to compose human value and dignity. He believes that in a world that does not believe in the value and position of mankind, Rumi echoes the correct Islamic idea in his poetry. He builds a new foundation for Islamic literature on the ruins of pessimistic literature and unpopular poetry of the time. It begins with composing human dignity and introduces human dignity and honor.Emad al-Din Khalil, in his book entitled "New Developments in Islamic Criticism", examines a selection of Rumi's Masnavi. He considers Rumi as an important poet in Islamic literature. In his study, from the very beginning, Rumi's amazing power in illustration and imagination amazes him. In addition, his poetic power and his ability to maintain his commitment to Islam in his poems make him admire Rumi. He believes that he has been able to portray Islamic ideas in the best way throughout his poems.Hafiz ShiraziAmong the theorists of Islamic literature, Seyyed Qutb was more fascinated by Hafez than other theorists. He found himself lost in Hafez's poems. He was looking for something that would enrich Arabic poetry, free it from the influences of Western philosophies, and get acquainted with Islamic thoughts and Islamic literature. He had found all these elements together in Hafez's poetry. He considers Hafez's lyric poems as the savior of Arabic literature from the contemporary crisis, and in addition to saving and inspiring Arabic poetry, Hafez's poetry, according to Sayyid Qutb, instills the spirit of the East in the composition of the Arab world, and frees it from boring Western rationalism.Sa'di ShiraziNadvi speaks of the Indians' attention to reading Saadi's books Golestan and Bustan. He points to the effects of these two books on moral and social education in human beings, in addition to believing that these two books provide life experiences to the audience. Besides Nadvi's acknowledgment of the moral and educational impact of Saadi's works in India, he cites Saadi's poems as a clear example of Islamic literature.

Based on what has been said, it can be concluded that Persian language was considered by theorists of Islamic literature because of its characteristics. It is considered as a central language in all theories of Islamic literature. The global position of Persian literature attracted more attention to it. Moreover, what led the theorists of Islamic literature to pay attention to Iranian literature was the Islamic dimension of the literature of this Islamic land.Additionally, Mohammad Iqbal had the greatest influence on theorists of Islamic literature. However, Iqbal Vandavi himself believes that Iqbal was also influenced by the Iranian poet Maulana Jalaluddin. In the meantime, after Iqbal and Rumi Jalaluddin, Saadi's influence is more due to his two valuable books (Bustan and Golestan). Overall, most of Saadi's influence can be seen in Nadvi. In contrast, Hafez has had the greatest impact on the Egyptian theorist Sayyid Qutb, who was fascinated by him.

One of the functions of American school in Comparative Literature is the possibility to equalize literary works from different geographic regions that do not share any historical grounds. In fact, this school gives us a platform to go beyond the limits of the French school as a condition of historical confrontation. This study uses this cross-border thought approach to conduct a comparative analysis of two literary works by Athol Fugard and Gholam-Hossein Sa’edi, both of whom compete over the concept of other. In fact, both authors seek to focus on the binary interactions existing in society regarding the idea of other. On the other hand, colonization has changed, and it does not appear as a direct governing system or a puppet ruler as it once did. Instead, in today’s world, it appears with a different approach and as silent domination. The plays The Island and Parvarbandan attempted to react to the social and cultural change and conflict they were faced with accordingly. This common ground makes these works worthy of comparative analysis. Therefore, with regards to the textual capacity and the atmosphere of both plays that portray domination and hegemony, their consequences on characters, and the reaction of the oppressed other and using the comparative approach, this study attempts a postcolonial reading of the plays. In fact, this study seeks to analyze these texts in cultural and deconstructive frameworks as well as the characters’ reactions and the narrative direction of the plays.A historical examination of postcolonial studies' roots reveals the traces of one of the field's pioneering thinkers, who first defined the notion of “the other” in the conflict between colonialists and colonized. Frantz Fanon addressed the question of “the other,” particularly in the case of blacks, by using the theoretical potentials of Hegel's discussions in phenomenology as well as Adler's theory on individual psychology. Inspired by Hegel's key theories on master-slave dialectic, he regarded the colonized as an” other” who could not embrace the role of “self.” In his paper, “Racism and Culture,” Franz Fanon defines race as the issue of “the other,” for example, superior/inferior racial relationships, in the context of the struggle between indigenous and colonial cultures. Racism, according to Fanon, follows a solid and immutable logic. A living nation, in his perspective, gets its essence from the exploitation of other people and, as a result, reduces those people to inferiors (see Fanon, 1972: 63).The representation of “the other” as an imperfect “self” in Bhabha's discourse implies not just the colonists' oppressive or proprietorial characteristics but also a more complex desire. In this case, the colonizer is subjected to these forms of representation in the same way that the colonized is, and he or she is simply caught up in the game of desire and fantasy established by the colonial context (see Mills, 2003: 159). In his book, The Colonizer and the Colonized (French: Portrait du colonisé, précédé par Portrait du colonisateur), Albert Memmi delves deeply into the mimicry-based relationship between the colonizer and the colonized. He argues that placing oneself in the shoes of another is an unconscious deed made by colonized people in an attempt to better their status. When a colonizer receives all advantages, profits, and credits and possesses wealth, honor, authority, or technical facilities, even though he has violated the colonized people's rights and has held them in servitude, he is seen as a unique role model for the colonized. The colonized imitates this role model to such an extent that his identity becomes entwined with that of the colonists, and he, therefore, ignores his true self. However, over time, the colonized understands that colonial culture had consistently put him in the position of a humiliated colonizer and that by accepting colonial values, he had actually signed his own conviction. Such a person not only does not benefit from the advantages of colonial society but his identity is gradually resolved in the relations of such a society. The colonizer gives in to his role model's demands and praises him, but the colonizer also finds a way to humiliate him, and that is ridiculing the colonizer's clumsy imitations. This is the point at which the colonized revolt against the "other" and his acts, hoping to get rid of him as quickly as possible; so, he rejects the colonizer, and the roles are reversed. The colonized people’s earlier desire for the colonizer and self-rejection turns into the colonizer's rejection and return to the actual self, their infatuation changes into extreme hatred of the outsiders, and they pursue self-detection. According to Memmi, the colonized cannot avoid this multi-stage colonial relation, as though each step is a prerequisite for the colonized to go to the next level and, eventually, achieve his freedom and deliverance (see Memmi, 1972: 155-158). 

This study was conducted using a comparative analytical method, and its data were collected through a desk research approach. Through a postcolonial and cultural studies lens, we examine Gholam-Hossein Sa’edi's play, Parvarbnadan (cattle fatteners, Fatteningly ), and Athol Fugard's drama, The Island, to conduct a comparative study of the concept of "the other" in both literary works. 

 The Island is a manifesto in which two men are sent to Robben Island for opposing apartheid and its brutal policies. This play, however, is also a statement on theater, asking, "What is the point of drama in a society founded on antagonism and repression?"  According to the play, humanity will continue to suffer in the most inhumane ways unless they can find a meaning for their suffering and express it (see Walder, 1984: 76). Sa’edi's play, on the other hand, is a prod against an indifferent society, and the playwright used the metaphor "lamb" to portray the indifference of such a society and describe the current hegemony. Here, the author is a concerned person who, like the repressed characters of an island, must remain in exile and lose his identity and humanity, a point that Fugard also accentuates in his work. The main characters in both plays are oppressed and imprisoned for fighting against the government and for having resistant morale.  In The Island, two black prisoners, John and Winston, are detained in the notorious Robben Island prison off the coast of Cape Town, South Africa, for their political stances against the government. On the flip side of this study is Fatteningly, whose protagonist (Meem) is a well-known activist and writer now serving a temporary prison sentence awaiting trial. Here, it is necessary to examine the discursive and ideological forms of the two plays. This enables us to determine how colonialism establishes its subject positions via representation. In this respect, Steven Sloman presents a diagram in his article "The Struggle for Postcolonialism" that is beneficial for comprehending the complexities of this issue: Diagram 1. The Semiotic FieldThe diagram above depicts colonialism as a system of power and dominance from left to right. The line “A” symbolizes the numerous beliefs regarding how colonial oppression is carried out via direct political and economic control. The lines “BC” and "DE" indicate several notions connected to the ideological regulation of colonial people or subjection through establishing consent. Theories that highlight colonialism's efficiency, which we observe moving along the line A, are fundamentally "direct political" theories or theories based on colonialism's "brutal coercion." In other words, these theories deny the fundamental assumption of resolving social conflict via the intentional development of concepts about the "self" and their internalization or "actualization" by subordinated subjects. On the other hand, theories that depict colonial power primarily along line BC - which embodies the ideological stance of economic colonialism along with line A - highlight the structural strength of state apparatuses in the formation of colonial relations. In his play, Fatteningly, Sa’edi uses lamb fattening as a metaphor and narrates the same sequence. This structure adheres to line "BC," according to which controlling ideology promotes instinctive desires so that colonized people may focus only on these things while neglecting current political-ideological concerns. As a result of such a policy, a society in which everyone thinks alike is formed. On the other hand, these herds are uninformed that cattle fatteners' ultimate focus in fattening ignorant animals is to transport them to the slaughterhouse. Totalitarian regimes do this by slaughtering and eradicating the personality or identity of human herds. On the other hand, this connection may be seen as suggesting that the government, by duping the masses and legitimizing racial discrimination, sends dissidents like John and Winston to a secluded island to live as enslaved people doing subordinate labor.The crucial point is that the process of otherness is characterized by intricate representational power processes; power is essentially oppressive. It deals with human subjugation and seduction via a variety of, at times contradictory, images. Another character in this drama is a lady who uses lures and cooks fatty meals to fatten and castrate Meem.In The Island, government authorities attempt to assign tasks to two convicts in order to transform them into animals or to remove the last traces of humanity from them. Furthermore, this task serves as both a shield and a sword for both prisoners. In other words, this task may be used for both self-defense and action and warfare against the colonizers (i.e., the state). Theater, in fact, is the instrument that these two characters use to avoid alienation.The body serves a particular purpose in both plays. In The Island, the human body narrates the anguish of oppressed individuals who have been banished because of their protest and whose body endures unending oppression in the process of "becoming other," which has pushed them to perform meaningless and dreadful tasks. The island evokes the setting for a tragic play in a tiny, lonely place, which is a metaphor for the country's terrible situation. People are condemned to the worst penalties in this country, and the state humiliates the spirits and bodies of the people by forcing convicts to do complex and meaningless actions, punishing them or turning them into obedient slaves.  If we consider locations such as the small world of postcolonial society, we observe how characters are treated and how they are compelled to live a passive, submissive life. All of the activities performed against Meem's character in Fatteningly are performed in order to transform him into an obedient character. As a result, actions such as edacity, castration, and physical punishment are examples of behaviors that are applied to the body, and governments use these activities to accomplish colonial aims in the process of "otherness."

One objective of the comparative literature approach is to investigate the conceptual and methodological biases in various territories without considering the historical context of the relationships between these territories. Based on comparative literature methodology, we first evaluated the similarities of the concepts of " the other" in two dramas (Fatteningly and The Island) and then attempted to analyze the dualities in these works through analyzing the dual system of "the self" and "the other." In the next stage, we tried to compare these works. As Fugard grew up in a colonial territory, he became interested in structures that arose from dual racial conflicts, such as white/black, which were finally internalized by the society. The issue of race and the problem of inferiority, implemented through white hegemony against people of color, is one of the most prominent keywords in Fugard's works. Most of Fugard's focus in his work was linked to this colonial theme. In terms of the typology of "the other,” since Sa’edi lives in a different culture than Fugard and has no experience living in the colony, he highlights the subject of autocracy in many of his plays rather than colonialism, which accelerates people's otherness process as a consequence of its hegemony. In fact, the hegemonic forces in these two works take a stand against the characters because they want these characters to go through a process of alienation during which the characters first get alienated but eventually resist and take an aggressive approach against colonialists or dictatorial powers.

The name is a part of the human identity chosen for the baby under the influence of various factors. Generally, others take a name at birth or before that. But in literary works, the author selects a name for the hero based on the subject and his discretion. Based on different reasons, authors choose a non-native name for their heroes. The names of literary characters are very diverse and numerous; depending on the type of incident, moral characteristics, and the role of the hero in the works made up by the author, they can borrow from different nations, get some religious roots, or follow a certain literary current, Etc. By naming heroes, the author gives identity and human life to them. Exploring the naming issue will make you more familiar with the idea of literary work. 

This study has done by descriptive analysis method and using library research. The present study is very immodest to comprehend and understand the characters of heroes in literary works through understanding their names. The purpose of this study is to answer the questions like: "What is the reason for choosing Eastern names by Russian writers in their works?", "What is the reason for choosing Russian names in Persian literary works?" and "What is the basis of choosing the names of heroes in Persian and Russian works, including the works of Anton Chekhov, Nikolay Gumilyov, and Bozorg Alavi?". Works used in this study include The role of specific names in the literary works by Mikhailov V.N., The poetics of names in the works of Bunin. I.A by Bazhenova. Y.V, Memoirs of Bozorg Alavi by Ahmadi. H. and Review of Chekhov's early stories: "Death of a Government Clerk", "Fat and Thin" and "The Chameleon" by Yahyapour. M. and Karimi Motahhar. J. 

The present study will explain why the heroes are named in some Russian and Persian literary works and will help to comprehend the works of Russian and Iranian poets and authors by expressing new opinions. The names of literary characters are very diverse and numerous. Reasons for choosing a non-native name can vary. For instance, after the evolution of 1941 in Iran, the intellectual community, besides following political and social currents, was heavily influenced by Western and Russian translations. Authors, especially those who have lived for some time in a foreign country, based on their interest, picked a non-native name for their heroes in stories; we can mention the non-native names of the heroes (Babushka, Marfinka, Margerita) in the works of Bozorg Alavi. The transition period and currents after September 1941 had a superior impact on the hero name chosen in Persian literature, especially in the works of Bozorg Alavi. Due to his political tendencies, thoughts and ideas, association with Russians, and interest in Russian literature, Bozorg Alavi was able to create works that make you feel the atmosphere of Russian and Western society, so naturally, taking Russian names for heroes helped him in this matter. The presence of heroes with a Russian name, Russian originality or growth by Soviet Union rules, also references to the works of two famous Russian writers (Pushkin and Dostoevsky) indicate Alavi's great interest and enthusiasm toward Russian literature. There is a connection between the name and heroes’ characteristics, and also the purpose and reason for choosing such a name by the author, by identifying the reasons for using a non-native name in his works. Living abroad and reading foreign authors' literary works in the original language, particularly Russian, helped him create a new style of fiction writing. This issue also happens in Russian literature. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Russian writers and poets, like Europeans, paid attention to the culture and literature of the Eastern countries, especially Iran, which is why Eastern names often were found in their works. For example, Twentieth-century writer and poet Nikolai Gumilyov also created works wherein he gave his heroes non-native names (Hafez, Darvish, Peri) due to his travels to Eastern countries and his acquaintance with Iranian poets. Gomilyov's interest in Eastern and Persian literature is due to his frequent traveling to some Eastern countries and his association with the poets and writers of the Bashnya (Dome) in Saint Petersburg; these interests led him to create Eastern-based work and use Eastern names and mythological characters. Choosing the Eastern name in his works indicates his interest in Eastern mysticism.  

As previously mentioned, the transition period and currents after September 1941 had a superior impact on the heroes’ name choices in Persian literature, especially in the works of Bozorg Alavi. Bozorg Alavi was able to create works that made you feel the atmosphere of Russian and Western society due to his political tendencies, thoughts and ideas, association with Russians, and interest in Russian literature. Therefore, it was natural for him to choose Russian names for his heroes. By identifying the reasons for using non-native names in his works, we realize that there is a connection between the name and the character of the hero, as well as the purpose and reason for choosing such a name as the author. Living abroad, and reading foreign authors' literary works in the original language, helped him create a new style of fiction writing. Gumilyov also chose non-native names for his heroes due to his interest in Hafez, Eastern mysticism, and his presence in Eastern and Muslim countries. Choosing the Eastern name in his works indicates his interest in Eastern mysticism. Thus, the most influential factors in taking the non-native name for the heroes are political and social currents, as well as the tendency and interest of authors in the literature and culture of the "Foreign".

Description and problem statement Kelileh and Demneh is one of the significant and valuable literary works. This book was written from Sanskrit into Pahlavi during the Sassanid era and Abdullah ibn Muqaffa translated it from Pahlavi into Arabic. In the era of Nasr ibn Ahmad Samani, Abolfazl Mohammad Balami translated it into Persian prose. Rudaki, the famous poet, wrote it in poetry and the book we have today has been gathered by Abu al-Ma'ali Nasrullah ibn Muhammad Abdul Hamid, who translated it from Ibn Muqaffa’s Kelileh in the middle of the sixth century AH, during the reign of Bahram Shah of Ghaznavi.Nasrullah Munshi’s translation is a dynamic translation to which the translator has added many additions such as Quranic verses, hadiths, Arabic and Persian verses, proverbs and he has made every effort to translate and rewrite the effect of the original text on the translated text. Instead of being faithful to Ibn Muqaffa's original text, the Munshi's concern is more focused on the reader's reaction while reading the text of his translation and conveying the general message of the original text. Bukhari's translation is very close to Ibn Muqaffa's Arabic original and faithful to the source text and the translator does not use omissions and additions as much as possible, unless the constraints of language and differences between the origin and destination culture compel her to do so, because his king has ordered him to translate the original text and be faithful to it.Kelileh and Demneh is one of the important books that has been considered from long ago and various translations of it are available. Also because of the importance of this book in both Arabic and Persian languages and the existence of common and different points in the three works; In this research, we intend to consider one of the common chapters of these three translations; That is, we examine the chapter of "interrogation of Demneh's work" from the perspective of imaginary images and answer these questions:How much is the frequency of each of the imaginary images in these three translations? And in this regard, what is the tangible difference between the three works?

No independent work has been done on the study and comparison of imaginary images in chapter of "interrogation of Demneh’s work" in Kelileh and Demneh by Nasrullah Munshi with the Arabic translation of Ibn Muqaffa; However, in comparative comparison of these two translations, articles have been written, including:“Investigation of some differences between Nasrullah Munshi’s Kelileh and Demneh with Ibn Muqaffa’s Arabic translation and Bidpay stories Panjakian”, Ali Heidari, Journal of Human Sciences, Al-Zahra University, Winter and spring 2007 and 2008, No. 68 and 69, pp. 61-45.“Comparative Study of Expressive Tricks about Lion and Cow in Arabic and Persian versions of Kelileh and Demneh”, KeyRokh Ahmadi et al, Journal of Comparative Literature Studies, Summer 2012, No. 22, pp. 64-47.“Study of the Elements of the Story in Persian and Arabic versions of Kelileh and Demneh (chapter: Lion and Cow), written by Farnaz Taghizadeh and Tayebeh Amirian, Journal of Literary Criticism and Stylistics Research, Spring 2011, Volume 1, No. 3, pp. 131-103.

Comparative Literature Comparative literature is a field in a wider range than the national literature of a country; It is a critique measuring the quality of a literary work on a scale higher than one climate; It is a step forward, towards a higher step, towards the perfection of the unity of human thoughts. The necessity of this young knowledge in the field of general literature and the relationship between the literature of different countries requires that literary researchers in this field compare them according to the importance of topics and the position of writers and poets and according to the similarities or differences between two texts from two languages or two characters from two literatures.2.2. Imaginary Images Kelileh and Demneh are prominent examples of Persian technical prose. The use of verbal and spiritual industries and fantasy forms such as simile, metaphor, irony and trope are the stylistic features of this book. In the meantime, simile as the most effective tool of imagination has a major role in the imageries of this book.Simile is one of the most important categories of rhetoric and one of the main elements of imagery and "the participation of two things in the description of attributes by special words." (Rajaei, 244:1372). There are different types of similes in the three translations of Kelileh and Demneh. In Nasrullah Munshi's translation, 188 similes were found, of which, singular to singular simile has the highest frequency (19.3%). Only 23 types of similes were found in Ibn Muqaffa's Kelileh and Demneh and allegorical simile has the highest frequency (26.08%) and in Mohammad Bukhari's Bidpay stories, the singular to singular simile has the highest frequency (26.08%).Metaphor is one of the rhetorical tools and in the word it is the source of use; it means to borrow, and in literary terms it means to borrow one word instead of another; because the poet in metaphor uses a word because of similarity instead of another word (Shamisa, 1991: 153). Metaphor and its variants can be seen in all three translations, but its frequency has been much more in Munshi's translation. In Nasrullah Munshi's translation, 87 types of metaphors have been used. The latent metaphor has the highest frequency (32.2%). In the Arabic translation of Kelileh and Demneh, 14 metaphors were found, of which the absolute explicit metaphor has the highest frequency (57.1%). Bukhari has also used absolute explicit metaphor (42.1%) among the types of metaphors in Bidpay stories. An irony is a word that has two meanings that are near and far and these two meanings are necessary and obligatory for each other; "So the speaker combines and uses the sentence in such a way that the listener's mind is transferred from the near to the far meaning." (Homayi, 1354: 255). Of the types of irony used in translations, 147 are found in the Munshi's translation. The irony to verb has the highest frequency (55.7%). The same thing can be seen in Ibn Muqaffa's translation; that is, the irony to verb has the highest frequency (50%). But in Bukhari’s translation, the noun irony is higher (24.4%).2.3. TropeThe priority of using different types of trope in the translation of Nasrullah Munshi is trope to interest of detail and proximity (each 19.1%) and in the translation of ibn Muqaffa is trope to interest of capacity (33.3%), and in Bidpay stories, the variety of trope, like its Arabic translation, is 6 types and, its frequency is more.

The result of examining imaginary images in chapter of "interrogation of Demneh's work" in two Persian translations of Nasrullah Munshi and Mohammad Bukhari and the Arabic translation of Ibn Muqaffa is as follows:In all three translations, imaginary images such as simile, metaphor, irony and trope are seen. The imaginary images used in the three translations are for the enlightenment of the reader and are far from ambiguity and complexity. All three translators have used all the imaginary images (simile, metaphor, irony, and trope) to express moral and educational issues. They are well aware that it is not enjoyable to iterate meanings in an ordinary language, therefore, with the help of imaginary images, they have made their word beautiful and charming and its effect for the reader will be more.Of the 660 items found in the chapter of "Interrogation of Demneh’s work", 431 were found in Nasrullah Munshi’s translation, 91 in the Arabic translation of Ibn Muqaffa, and 138 items were found in the Mohammad Bukhari’s Bidpay stories. The frequency of using imaginary elements in Nasrullah Munshi’s Kelileh and Demneh is as follows: simile (31.6%), irony (21.2%), metaphor (16.6%) and trope (13.02%) and this order in Ibn Muqaffa’s Kelileh and Demneh as follows: Irony (6.8%), simile (4.4%), trope (3.4%) and metaphor (2.6%). This order in Mohammad Bukhari’s Bidpay stories is as follows: irony (32.6%), metaphor (27.5%) and trope (23.2%) and simile (16.6%); Therefore, the variety of using different types of imaginary elements in Nasrullah Munshi's translation is higher than other translations.Less simple sentences can be found in the structure of Nasrullah Munshi's sentences. He has adorned most of the sentences with various imaginary images. Unlike him, Ibn Muqaffa and Muhammad Bukhari have used more simple and clear sentences and have been less inclined to adorn sentences. In his translation, Nasrullah Munshi has made more efforts to make the anecdotes better and more beautiful and to make them more readable.Muqaffa, Abdullah Bukhari, Bidpay Stories  .