Journal of Sistan and Baluchistan Studies
Volume:2 Issue: 1, Jun 2022

The Old and Middle Persian w, although shifted to v in New Persian (NP), is still found in some Iranian languages and some Persian dialects, such as Sistani, Bakhtiari, Roodbari, etc. This study traces the ancient sound w of Middle Persian (MP) in the Sistani dialect (SD).  SD is spoken in southeastern Iran in Sistan, where its name comes from the Old Persian Sakastana, and its original name Zarangiana comes from the Old Persian Zranka, ‘waterland’. The words of Sakzi, the language of Sistan since ancient times, were found in the translation of the old Qorān-e Qods into Persian, the translation in which w can be traced. Sistani has preserved some characteristics of MP, such as initial consonant clusters and long /eː/ and /oː/. The finding of this study is the existence of MP w in Sistani that can be interpreted in different ways: 1- w as an allophone of the phoneme v, which mostly occurs between [o] and the syllable break, 2- w as the phoneme descending from MP and still existing in Sistani, and v as its allophone in some environments, 3- w analyzed as a vowel in the sequence of [ow] forming diphthong [oʊ], 4- w is in the halfway of transition: shift of w to v in some words and still preserved in some other words. However, the shifting process of MP w to v seems not to be yet completed in this dialect, and it is possible to assume Sistani is a stage between MP and NP.  The data for the study was gathered from all districts of Sistan, from non-literate and graduate consultants. The pure Sistani words were used as much as possible. Auditory pretest, articulatory/acoustic phonetics examinations, and Wavesurfer/Praat software were used. The method of analysis was adapted from Burquest (2006). The data were transcribed in IPA, and phonemes/allophonic variations were determined by the contrastive method of minimal pairs, analogous, and complementary distribution patterns. This study can be useful for documentation, reconstruction of the older Iranian languages, and help show the manner of a shift in ancient sounds.

Phosphate is unique among the elements in being a sensitive and persistent indicator of human occupation. It has long been of interest to archaeologists because of its potential to inform them about the presence of past human activity and to offer clues regarding the type and intensity of human occupation. In fact, the soil of settlements is part of the phosphorus reservoir. The reconstruction of the human activities areas of archaeological sites using soil phosphate analysis is a well-known technique. This study aims to identify and compare the activity area at ancient mounds of Rivi through the measurement of the quantity of phosphates in the soil. In this study, 29 soil samples were collected from the study area, and phosphorus quantity was measured using Spectrophotometry. Multivariate statistical methods were used to classify the obtained results. The results showed that the phosphorus concentrations in the ancient areas were higher than in the control area, and among the ancient areas, the phosphorus quantity related to Rivi B was higher than in other mounds. Previous studies have shown that the Rivi area has been inhabited from around 2900 years ago to the last Sassanian years (1,500 years ago), and in the middle of the Islamic age (1000 years ago), it was a great village. In total, the archaeological site of Rivi was inhabited during the Iron Age, Achaemenid, Parthian, Sassanid, and Islamic periods, and that is why there was a high concentration of phosphorus in the Rivi area compared to the control area.

At the same time, with the expansion and flourishing of the ancient site of Shahr-i Sokhta in southeastern Iran in the third millennium BC, many satellite sites formed around it. Population growth, productivity boom, specialization, and the development of this ancient city led its residents to seek habitation in new and separate regions in connection with the main center of the colony; that is, Shahr-i Sokhta, to create these satellite villages around it. Thus, in the second and third periods of Shahr-i Sokhta, various satellite sites around this ancient city appeared. The most important is in the mounds of the Rud-i Biyaban in the second period of settlement in Shahr-i Sokhta. Tepe Sadegh in the southern area of Qale Rostam is one of the most significant satellite sites of the third millennium BC. Its excavations began in 2009 by the Archaeological Committee of Sistan and Baluchestan University. The result of the excavations is the discovery of remarkable and valuable cultural findings, including architectural structures, pottery, stone artifacts, metal artifacts, and statuettes. Valuable discoveries from the excavations of this ancient site indicate the depth of extensive cultural relations of this site with Shahr-i Sokhta and other neighboring historical regions. This research is done based on the data obtained from laboratory studies of buff ware obtained from the Tepe Sadegh by various instrumental methods, including X-ray diffraction (XRD) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF). A comparative study of this experimental study results with the results of the analysis of buff ware samples obtained from Shahr-i Sokhta has indicated that the pottery discovered from both areas has a very similar structure and chemical composition. It suggests that the potters of Shahr-i Sokhta and the surrounding satellite sites, such as the Tepe Sadegh, may have used the same clay deposits to produce their pottery. In addition, laboratory experiments indicate that with the establishment of specialized centers for the production of pottery products in the form of satellite sites around Shahr-i Sokhta, the quality of ceramic products in terms of construction, compared to Shahr-i Sokhta, has improved somewhat.

The eastern and southeastern regions of Iran have long been of great importance due to the existence of metal mines. Although new research has been conducted in recent years on geology and mining, little research has been done on the site's ancient mines. In 2013, an archaeological survey in Sarbisheh County identified a number of mines and metal smelting furnace. These historic sites are located in the central district of Sarbisheh County in the southern part of the county and in places called Koohakrud, Mesgaran, and Kasrab. In all, nine mines and three metal smelting furnaces were discovered, the largest of which is located in the Koohakrud area, 25 km south of Sarbisheh. The purpose of this research is to introduce the mines and study sites in the central district of Sarbisheh County, how to extract ores and how to melt metals. In this regard, questions have been raised about the period of mines and metal extraction furnaces? What metal is the most extracted metal and how was the metal extraction method done? Mineral fragments from all these mines and a large amount of slag from the furnaces, and in some of these mines, clay finds have been obtained. The dating of identified mines is very difficult due to the lack of data. However, according to the cultural materials obtained from around these mines and furnaces, the Middle Ages to the late Islamic Middle Ages can be considered for these sites. According to the evidence of metal smelting, the most common mineral used in smelted rocks is copper, and the method of extracting metal mines has been surface and underground mining. The research method in this research was descriptive-analytical, and data collection has been done in a field and library method.

Tabas city in South Khorasan province is one of the regions that have high capacities in terms of mining and metallurgy studies, and compared with the other regions of Iran, this region is unknown. The abundance of smelting areas and accumulated slag and the presence of mineral cavities to extract minerals in the central part of Tabas are proof of extensive mining and metal production in this region, which plays an important role in the economy and ecological sustainability of the region along with other economic activities. Regarding the quantity and quality of the studies prepared so far on mining and metallurgy in this city, the cultural and historical capacities of this cultural area have not been introduced as they should be. During the archaeological studies conducted by experts hired by the Cultural Heritage Office of South Khorasan, working in the central part of Tabas city, a mining site and two slag sites have been identified and studied, which indicates the role and importance of the mining and metalworking in the social and economic life of the central cultural region. Citing the results of the field method, reviewing texts and written sources related to the central part, identifying evidence related to the metalworking industry, smelting technology and type of the ore deposit thoroughly, this study has been provided to understand better the process and cycle of ancient metalworking, which includes three stages of mining, extraction, and melting.  By typological and comparative studies of discovered slag with adjacent metal centers, it seems that the composition of slag includes the main elements of iron, lead, and copper. The typological and comparative studies of slag discovered in neighboring metal centers indicate that the composition of slag includes the main elements of iron, lead, and copper.  The archaeological field studies conducted on the mines and smelting verify the fact that metallurgists in this area used open and underground methods to extract the ore, and after transferring the mineral parts to the smelting workshops and furnaces, they used the roasting method.

The Qobbeh Sabz building in the historical context of Kerman was one of the relics of the Qutlugh-Khanids period in southeastern Iran and part of an extensive architectural complex including educational, religious, and mausoleum buildings in the city. Today, the only main porch of the Qutlugh-Khanids complex survives, and it is called the Qobbeh Sabz porch. During the Qajar period, a building was built in the southeastern corner of this porch as a Tekiyeh Qobbeh Sabz and still stands. One of the serious ambiguities about this Qutlugh-Khanids multipurpose complex is the process of its formation and historical course, as well as the reasons for its destruction. Accordingly, the present article studies the evidence from archaeological soundings in this complex. It analyzes the content of historical sources in order to answer these questions: What was the formation process, historical developments, and reasons for the destruction of the Qobbeh Sabz complex? What are the factors that caused its widespread destruction? However, some scholars have suggested the role of the 1896 earthquake in the widespread destruction of the complex. They believe that Qobbeh Sabz survived before this earthquake. The results of the second author's archeological soundings in 2020 and the analysis of historical texts by the method of "content analysis" showed that the process of extensive destruction of Qobbeh Sabz began some time ago, and probably some of these destructions consciously took place during the reign of Vakil al-Molk Nouri, ruler of Kerman from 1261 to 1284 AH. Based on these results, after the destruction of many parts of this multipurpose complex, part of its debris was scattered and leveled in the surrounding area. Another part of its debris was moved to another place - probably Qal’eh Dokhtar in Kerman - and then constructions took place in the Qobbeh Sabz area in the late Qajar period. Finally, the earthquake of 1896 caused damage to the last remnants of the Qutlugh-Khanids’s complex, the main dome.

Qajarid residential-governmental settlements found in Baluchistan have a unique architecture due to the security concerns that resulted from adjacency with the borders of the neighboring countries, in addition to the special climatic and environmental conditions of the region. The concepts behind the architecture of the Qajar era had certain shared grounds that were rooted in the sociopolitical issues of that historical period and can still be observed in many Qajarid castles. This study analyzes these concepts in the architectural features of Seb Castle in Saravan County, with the aim of reviewing the architecture of the castle and identifying its spaces. The architecture of Seb Castle, which was a residential-governmental site, reflects the cultural, climatic, and geographical conditions of the region, as well as the builders’ knowledge of the local materials. In this research, which is partly historical-interpretive and partly descriptive-analytical, the prominent architectural features and ornaments of Qajarid castles in Saravan County, especially Seb, are discussed with the aim of examining the major factors that have affected the structure of these fortified buildings. The results show that the sociopolitical conditions of that era had a great impact on the structure of Qajarid castles. In addition, the study of the prominent features of Seb Castle shows that it has a special mastaba structure and that it has been constructed with the clay-alyssum mixture, a local material once commonly used in the region. Unlike other Iranian historic buildings in which common ornaments included decorative plasterwork, tile-work, mosaic, and mirrors, the interior and exterior of Seb Castle have been decorated using clay and mud.

After introducing the examples of the Troglodytic caves’ architectural structures in Iran and paying more attention to this type of ancient architecture, two valuable examples of which are Kandovan and Meymand village, studies on this type of architecture became common in all parts of Iran. We see different types of Troglodytic architecture from north to south and east to west of Iran due to the geological structure. The authors of this article provide a structural study of the Troglodytic caves in the Kal-e Jenni area of Tabas city. This structure, known among the locals as Gabri House and also as Mehr Kadeh, was carved out of a very cohesive sand bed of the river wall that dried up millennia ago, conveying a kind of principles of architecture that are still in use with different functions in our modern world. Regarding the library and field studies on this area, there are similarities and differences in the architectural structure of this edifice with others found around the city of Tabas. It is a building with a corridor entrance attached to a vertical corridor moving upwards and then in the building a corridor ending in five small rooms on both sides. The existence of a well in this building is important.

The research argues that a plethora of economic, social, and technological alterations during the Uruk period were perceived by the archeologists to coincide with Susa II. One of the most significant advances of this era is producing a distinct type of pottery called the Beveled Rim Bowl (BRB). It is of paramount importance to the archeology of Southwest Asia owing to the wide range of distribution, abundance, and variety in shape and size. During this period, this type of pottery was discovered in the most important areas of southwestern Iran and the plains of Susiana, Deh Luran, and Ramhormoz from the beginning of the fourth millennium to the beginning of the third millennium BC. Cylindrical seals, clay tablets, counting systems, Banesh trays, tubular and nose handle jars, multicolored pottery, and BRB appeared first in the Southwest and then in other parts of the Iranian plateau. This evidence is among the important features of the analysis of trans-regional relations between Iran and Mesopotamia in the fourth and third millennia BC. The authors of the current research have sought to examine the general distribution of BRB on the eastern half of the Iranian plateau, the purpose of which would be to provide the answer to one fundamental research question, that is, the manner of and the reason for the current distribution of BRB in Tepe Yahya, Tal-i-Iblis, Shahr-i Sokhta, Tappeh Langar, Konar Sandal, and Kalleh Kub Sarayan regions, and the relationship between their production and distribution in this region, and their original production in southern Mesopotamia and south-western Iran. Although a vast range of scholars has employed a superficial approach to declare the cultural, economic, and commercial interactions between these areas and other parts of Iran, including the eastern and south-eastern regions, as the reason for the current distribution of this type of ceramic, specialized research on the temporal differences of the emergence of BRB in different parts of the Iranian plateau has remained elusive. It may be attributed to the fact that the cultural and social developments of Susa II, including the production of BRB in the eastern and south-eastern regions, have chronologically occurred later. This postponement may be explained by the decline in trade routes of the Central Plateau of Iran in the second half of the fourth millennium BC. From the end of the fourth millennium BC and especially from the beginning of the third millennium BC onward, the east, southeast, south, and southwest of Iran became the main corridor for the cultural and commercial interactions with Mesopotamia. Furthermore, the authors seek in this study to comparatively examine the BRB discovered from the areas of Susiana plains and the semi-eastern areas of the Iranian plateau and those of the original birthplace of Southern Mesopotamia in terms of shape, size, application, frequency, and chronology. The findings indicate that the bowls discovered in the mentioned areas have differences and similarities in shape, dimensions, volume, weight, frequency, and function.

Qasr Golchehreh is one of the archaeological sites of Greater Khorasan in Jam Plain, 2 km southeast of Langar village, which has always been a suitable environment for settlements due to its favorable climatic and communication conditions. The presence of pottery and brick walls in this site points to richness and human settlements in this historical site. Unfortunately, so far, this site has just been identified and introduced in the list of historical monuments. Therefore, it is necessary to study this very important site in Torbat-e Jam plain, which has not been addressed so far, and also to determine the date of its settlement. Accordingly, in this research, which is carried out in a descriptive-analytical way, it has been attempted to answer the following research questions: 1- According to the Ceramic chronology, what period does this site belong to? 2- With which regions has it had the most cultural communications? Accordingly, after selecting the flagship pottery and conducting a typological and comparative study, the following results were obtained: The results of this study show that the pottery belonged to the Parthian and Sassanid periods and the Middle Islamic period. Most of the trans-regional connections of this region can be considered with the northeastern regions such as Dargaz, Sarakhskhs, Neyshabur and Tous, east with Birjand, and southeast with Sistan and Makran.

The reign of Hormizd IV (579-590 AD) faced many battles in a series of unending conflicts with other neighboring states and tribes, mostly on the western front. Thus, all the government’s attention was focused on the western neighborhoods. Sakastan was one of the most important states of ancient Iran during the Sassanid period, where a member of the Shah’s family was always elected to rule Sakastan. Although minting the royal coins was very active since the beginning of the Sassanid period, after the reign of Khosrow I, coinage with the abbreviation SK became common and continued until the Islamization shift that changedall of their ancient symbolism. In the Hormizd IV period, Sakastan was considered a state far from the center of power and was out of the focus of attention. Studying the issue of coinage in this region is important because coins are considered a valuable document in describing the archaeological identity of a region. Therefore, relying on the library resources, the central issue of this research was to identify and prepare a list of coins minted in Sakastan by Hormizd IV, the Sassanid Emperor. The results of this study reveal the fact that during the 13-year reign of Hormizd IV, coins were minted in only four separate years, namely years 3, 5, 10, and 12 of Hormizd IV and possibly to meet the economic needs of the region.

One of the oldest traditional arts in the world, which has lasted for thousands of years, is the rock art. The rocky face of the mountains seems to be the first painting canvas on which our antediluvian ancestors tried to record their artful works. Although other methods of recording the works of art were available to primate humans, they became obsolete over time due to the deficiency of the dialyzed materials used. There are different opinions attributing a thorough chronology to these types of ancient paintings. Although in many areas, these motifs are dated to the Paleolithic period, in different parts of Iran, similarities in terms of subject and style can be perceived between these motifs and motifs presented on the pottery samples each one relating to the different cultural periods. Perhaps we can deal with the chronology of the patterns by the comparative approach. The study of these ancient motifs has been given a special attention in the world for several decades, but in Iran, the comprehensive studies have not been done yet and generally the majority of the presentations only include the descriptive collections of the motifs. The preceding researches demonstrate that the art of pictograph can be seen in the most parts of Iran, especially on the Zagros and the Central Plateau. In the Fars province, due to its geographical location in the South Zagros, rock art has been identified and introduced from different regions, including petroglyphs and pictographs. In the present research, studying the Bakhtegan county of Fars province, we identified some of the pictographic instances, and in this article we try to introduce their patterns. The present study prepared by the field and library study methods to document, classify, and attribute a relative chronology of the patterns based on the comparative approach. The studied motifs are of the color-painting type embracing the human, animal, plant and the symbolic motifs.