فصلنامه تاریخ اسلام
پیاپی 90 (تابستان 1401)

The history of early Islam includes various approaches of Islamic community towards Imam Ali (PBUH). The believers of appointed Imamate and the ones believed in the elected caliphate are two groups unanimous in regard with the superior position of Imam Ali (PBUH). The third group are those against that holiness. This research aimed to clarify the ways of opposition with Imam Ali (PBUH) and investigated the data present in the Sunnite sources regarding the events occurred during 36 to 132 (A.H) through the historical approach. According to the findings, the enmity with that holiness has been represented by attributing blasphemy, cursing, accusing, leaving the Prophetic tradition, denying the virtues, removing the name of that holiness and oppressing his followers.

Precautionary concealment, being interpreted as avoiding from falling into the trap of hazard and disaster, has been considered as one of the most important elements of safeguarding the Shiite school throughout the history. After the tragic incident of Karbala and the martyrdom of Imam Hossein (PBUH), Imam Sajad (95-61 A.H) took the strategy of Precautionary concealment as the best policy. Moreover, the next Shiite Imams also relied on this method to safeguard Imamate and the identity of Shi’ism. The events and seditions occurred during this period being considered as the most complicated and tragic crises, and each of which was in need of an intelligent stances, so that any faults could face the continuity of Imamate and the reconstruction of the Shiite community, that Imam Sajad (PBUH) was looking for, with great dangers. This research seeks to answer the question on how Imam Sajad took this strategy to protect himself and the Shiite community in these critical situations. The findings of research indicate that Imam Sajad (PBUH) disregarded the cruelties of Umayyads and stopped the domination of another enemy, such as Al e-Zobair on Shiites and Prophet’s Family.

The Shiites like the others were active in many occupations to meet their needs and society’s. The recommendation of prophet’s Family on having an occupation has been effective in this regard. Considering the specific status of Shiites in time of Occultation, the present research is to investigate all kinds of professions done by the companions of Imam Hassan Askari (PBUH). Due to the lack of sources, it was difficult to achieve the data on the issue. However, 26 out of 110 companions’ occupations could be specified based on the present historical data. The diversity of those professions such as calligraphy, selling flour, producing oil, carpentry, and coppersmith shows the presence of Imam in different domains of economic life in that era as well as the companions’ simultaneous effort related to learning the sciences of Prophet’s Family on one hand and doing ordinary jobs on the other hand.

The believers of intellectual and cultural inheritance from the time of previous Imams encountered various intellectual currents such as Zeidiyeh, Ismai’lism, extremists, and non-Shiites in time of Imam Hassan Askari (PBUH). The present research is to identify the most important Shiite and intellectual currents in this era and the way Imam dealt with them. The research done through the descriptive-analytical method investigates the historical evidences related to this issue and it concludes that Imam Hassan Askari (PBUH) guided the Shiite and the Islamic community taking the advantage of communicative facilities such as sending letters, strengthening advocacy organization, training scholars, clarifying important instructions such as Mahdaviat and seriously dealing with the deviated beliefs such as extremists

After the settlement of Muslims in India and under the influence of some historical alternations, biography was gradually considered in this region. The present research done through the analytical and descriptive method, is to investigate the elements effective on alterations in regard with biography during the 19th and 20th centuries in India. The findings of research clarify that the external elements such as the Christian propagators and the internal elements such as the deviated sects considerably affected the methods in contrast to the great development of biography in India in this period

One of the disadvantages of research is the previous biases on the basis of the reputation of one issue and the unthoughtful acceptance of ancestors’ beliefs regarding the different viewpoints of compiler. In these cases, reviewing the remained texts of a compiler as the most evident documents to represent his belief could be highly facilitative. The present research, taking advantage of text analysis, has investigated Hashem Kalbi’s ideological tendencies. According to this research and considering the remained works of Hashem and their studying in three aspects such as the study of interpretations related to caliphs, the historical accounts of compiler and his political relations and conditions, it is concluded that he is not an extremist Shi’a and there is also doubt in his being Shiite, and this is in contrast with the prevalent views related to his extremist beliefs.

Buyids changed into the most important element effective on the framework of caliphate relations through dominating on the most central and western areas of Iran and achieving Baghdad, the Caliph’s palace. However, Buyids lost their authority and failed. This writing seeks to answer the question regarding why some of the most important elements of rising Buyids shortly changed into the failure of this dynasty. The findings of article illustrate that many unique characteristics of Buyids including multidimensional centrality, prejudiced religious attitude, lack of ethnic and religious unity among the armies led to their weakness after their complete settlement and gradually they changed into a structural predicament against the governors of this dynasty and finally their failure came about.

The identity considered as the necessity of survival and endurance of social life includes the elements such as the land, language, religion, government, ethnicity, traditions, intellectual inheritance, myths, and heroes. This research investigates the role of religion related to the development of Iranians’ identity throughout the history as well as the effect of religious identity of Iranians on the political and social alterations. Taking advantage of the descriptive and analytical method and library data, it is concluded that on the basis of evidences such as spirituality and theism, religion is considered as the inherent part of Iranian identity and it has an undeniable role in the events such as the advent of Tabaristan Alavis, Buyids, Safavid and the Islamic Revolution.

The convergence of community and government along with the economic prosperity of Kerman in Qarakhitai era (619-703) provided the ground for the cultural development along with the attention of government towards the literate historians such as Nasser al- Din Monshi (730 A.H) and Tarikhshahi (698 A.H). The aforementioned historians completed the trend of local historiography in this region through the further consideration of Iranian political culture as well as the replication of political elements on Iranian governing. The present writing investigates the cultural viewpoints of two nominated historians concerning the society and government relations to answer the question on the elements reflecting the political culture of Iranshahr in the works of local historians in Qarakhitai era. Accordingly, it is concluded that part of identifiable elements in the works of these two historians including the Iranian identity, the social and political order, the necessity of the presence of governor and a favorable governing have been actually the representation of cultural elements derived from the Iranian Political Culture and the replication of their concepts.

Abbasids paid attention to the development of river shipping during their Caliphate. They made lots of military, commercial uses from both Tigris, Euphrates rivers. The existence of internal barriers negatively affected the shipping activities in these two rivers, which is the main question that this research is based on. The research is to find the answer to question on what factors caused the reduction of shipping activities in Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Abbasid era (132 - 334 A.H). The research findings indicate that the human factors such as the internal riots as well as the internal and external thefts, the increase of customs duties and the natural factors such as the winds, floods, muds of rivers are considered the elements effective on lessening the economic efficiency of shipping activities.