فصلنامه پژوهش های تاریخی
سال چهاردهم شماره 4 (پیاپی 56، زمستان 1401)

There are different propositions regarding the cooperation of the Shia with the oppressive rulers, especially the acceptance of positions by them. This cooperation was significantly manifested during the Abbasid period. In this regard, the purpose of the present historical study was to investigate the acceptance of officials and cooperation with the oppressive government in the political path of Imam Sadiq (AS). Despite the reports that indicated the prohibition of cooperation with the government, some of the followers of Imam Sadiq (AS) cooperated with the Abbasid caliphate in various fields and held positions, such as governing different regions, judging, and keeping treasury. The Abbasids were not sensitive to these collaborations as long as their government was not threatened. For example, Abdullah bin Senan was trusted by the Shiites and was as the same time among the financial and military officials of the Abbasids. It seems that the sanctity of any kinds of cooperation and acceptance of office, in addition to the Kharijites, was strongly emphasized and propagated by the Zaidis in favor of the armed uprising. They objected the Imam (AS) and wanted to know why he was interacting with a government that he considered invalid. The many and numerous questions of the Shias from the Imam (AS), as well as the narrations from him about cooperation, showed the contrast of different approaches during the period of Imam Sadiq (AS).

Human beings' concern for hygiene and restoring health to the body in various situations, especially when traveling, has been an ever-present issue. Therefore, the current research is based on this question: What was the response to the hygienic and health needs of travelers in Safavid Iran? The findings of the present study, based on a descriptive-analytical method, show that travel in the Safavid era, with various religious, military, and commercial goals and motives, was primarily done on land (on foot and horseback), and by sea. Under hygiene protection measures and various treatment methods, the behavioral approach to responding to the traveler's hygiene and health needs is presented under the intellectual atmosphere and the humor medicine system (four temperaments). The occurrence of various physical and mental challenges for the traveler along the way was the result of moving while traveling. Therefore, gaining the necessary knowledge, taking measures, and making changes in habits and patterns of behavior before traveling was necessary to prepare the body. Adhering to six core principles of maintaining hygiene safeguarded the health of the traveler's body during travel. In proportion to the duration of the travel and the two important variables of heat and cold, there was the possibility of catching various diseases and facing harmful conditions such as thirst, hunger, fatigue, heatstroke, frostbite, scalding, and injuries. Different treatments have been provided by physicians to solve all kinds of conditions and complications, depending on the situation and temperament of the person.

Anīs al-Mu’menīn is the Name of an old, little-known book by Mohammad ibn Ishaq Hamawi (938 AH), who is known as "Fażluddīn Abharī". This book is one of the prominent examples of Imams' biographies in the early Safavid period, in which the author appeared as a competent historian-theologian and wrote the Imams' life history according to his needs of time. Therefore, the present article tried to understand the components of Fażluddīn's historiography by reading the text of Anīs al-Mu’menīn with a descriptive-analytical method. The question was whether there was a connection between the way of his historiography in the book of Anīs al-Mu’menīn with the political and cultural conditions of the time when the text was written. The results of this analysis showed that the text of Anīs al-Mu’menīn focused on the three components of establishing legitimacy of the Imamate of the Imams (AS) by focusing on proving the legitimacy of Imam Ali's (AS) succession, secularization of Sunnis by marginalizing the caliphs, especially the first three caliphs, and alienation of the Sufists based on the marginalization of Abu Muslim and its narrators. These components were strongly influenced by the events of Hamavi's era, such as the religious unification policy of the Safavids, the need for the Iranian society to recognize the virtues and callings of Imams (AS), the disagreement between Shia and Sunni discourse, and the competition between Shia scholars and jurists with Sufis Qezelbash or in other words, the confrontation between Feqahati Shia and popular or Sufi Shia in the first half of the 10th century of Hijri.

Arthur Millspaugh came to Iran twice as a financial counselor to solve the macroeconomic problems of the country by carrying out reforms in the financial and administrative structures. In his first mission (1301-1306 AH), he was able to achieve relative success and make changes in the financial and tax systems, but in the second mission (1321-1323 AH), according to the supporters and opponents, he was not very successful and finally, she left Iran with frustration and sadness. Many opinions have been raised about the reasons for Millspaugh's failure triggered by his supporters and opponents. The current research tried to investigate the reasons for Millspaugh's failure in reforming Iran's financial affairs in his second mission by relying on documentary and library sources and using a descriptive-analytical method. The results of the research showed that there were traces of truth in the views of both supporters and opponents and various factors, such as Millspaugh's dictatorial ethics, his complete lack of knowledge and understanding of the political, social, and cultural structures of the Iranian society, preference for personal and American interests over the interests of the Iranian nation and government, existence of corruption and disorder in the administrative and economic structures of Iran, instability and discord in the political system of Iran, disruption and obstruction caused by oppositions, critical conditions caused by the World War and the Soviet domination of the northern provinces, and prevention of the transfer of products from these regions to the central parts had an effect on Millspaugh’s failure.

Since the formation of Seljuks in the Levant, this region was subject to unrest, which continued the chaotic trend of the post-Hamdanid. What took place in the Levant in the Seljuk period was a series of replacing the governments by the soldiers of the same dynasty one after the other from 478 till 570 A. H. This research aimed to answer this question: What was the process of substituting governments in this period? To this goal, the reasons for the rise and fall of the Levant's governments and the records of substitute dynasties had to be analyzed. By using the quantitative historical method, the procedure of these substitutions was mapped. According to this study, the chronological process of substituting the governments had increased over time. The former disturbs were managed to be settled and the short-term rulers -inheritances of Arab tribes- to be altered by long dynasties, such as the Zengid and Ayyubid dynasties.

The battle of Bani Qurayzah is one of the challenging events in the Prophet’s (PBUH) life. It is said that Bani Qurayzah was besieged by the prophet’s troops, forced to surrender, and their men were killed in captivity. But there is evidence of the occurrence of physical conflict in the battle of Bani Qurayzah, which indicates a flaw in the famous report. In the present study, this evidence is presented in five headings. First, we show that there is no tradition indicating the absence of physical warfare in the Bani Qurayzah incident, while some sources are silent on this issue and others have expressed images of shooting in this war. There are also traditions that report the bravery of Imam Ali (AS) and Zubair ibn al-Awwam on the battlefield but have been abandoned due to the silence of well-known sources. Verses by Hassan ibn Thabit are also presented as evidence of the battle of Qurayzah, which depicts a bloody war. Also, the difference between the fate of Bani Qurayzah and Bani Nadir in the occurrence of physical warfare is well illustrated in the narration of Abdullah ibn Umar and the verses of Hassan ibn Thabit as real witnesses. Another important reason is how the spoils of this war were divided and distributed among its Muslim participants after estimating and separating the khums (one-fifth) of the spoils. This method of dividing the spoils which is different from the way they were handed over to the prophet in the Bani Nadir incident indicates the occurrence of a physical conflict in Qurayzah. These pieces of evidence, which have no contradictory alternatives, indicate the occurrence of physical warfare in the battle of Bani Qurayzah.