فهرست مطالب

الهیات تطبیقی - پیاپی 27 (بهار و تابستان 1401)

مجله الهیات تطبیقی
پیاپی 27 (بهار و تابستان 1401)

  • تاریخ انتشار: 1401/03/01
  • تعداد عناوین: 10
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  • ابوذر رجبی*، مرسل عزیزی صفحات 1-16

    متفکران اسلامی در باب فهم آیات متشابه و مسیله ظاهر و باطن داشتن آیات به یکسان نمی اندیشند و گاهی اختلافات مبنایی میانشان وجود دارد. غزالی و ابن رشد از موافقان بهره گیری از روش تاویل در فهم آیات متشابه بودند و راه گریز از چالش و تعارض ظاهر و باطن را استفاده از رهیافت تاویل می دانستند. ابن رشد در مخالفت با غزالی شهره بود و کتاب تهافت التهافت را در نقد تهافت الفلاسفه غزالی نگاشت. با وجود نقدهایی که به او در این کتاب و دیگر آثارش صورت می دهد، در پاره ای از موارد و به ویژه در مسیله تاویل از غزالی تاثیر می پذیرد. غزالی دو گونه مواجهه در دو دوره فکری با مسیله تاویل دارد. این مواجهه در هر دو دوره کاملا روشمند است و همین امر سبب الگوبرداری از روش ارایه شده او در مسیله تاویل شد. از این الگو در فهم متن ابن رشد بهره فراوانی برده است. براساس یافته های تحقیق، ابن رشد هم در ماهیت شناسی تاویل و هم در تعلیل و ضرورت اقبال به آن و هم در ابزار روی آوری به تاویل از غزالی متاثر بود؛ اگرچه اختلاف نظرهایی نیز در هریک از موارد با او دارد. در پژوهش حاضر، به روش توصیفی تحلیلی وجوه تاثیرپذیری ابن رشد از غزالی در مسیله تاویل نشان داده شده است.

    کلیدواژگان: تاویل، غزالی، ابن رشد، ظاهر، باطن، محکم و متشابه، تعارض عقل و دین
  • مجتبی عطارزاده* صفحات 17-32

    عاجزماندن پیشرفته ترین کشور های جهان در مهار بیماری خطرناک کرونا، فطرت فروخفته انسان عصر جدید مدعی توانمندی حل همه مشکلات خود به تنهایی را تکان داد و او را متوجه ناکارآمدی علم سکولار در مواجهه با بحران امنیت و سلامت کرد. پیدایش و شیوع این ویروس به عنوان مصداق و نمونه کاملی از شر و تهدیدگر نسل بشر که با افزایش شدید تلفات، ضعف انسان در مقابله با آن کاملا آشکار شد، بسیاری را به تامل در معنای زندگی رهنمون کرد.فرضیه این نوشتار در پاسخ به سوال اصلی این پژوهش که چگونه باوجود جولان الهیات شر در اثر کرونا، موضوع معنا و مفهوم حیات برای بشریت مدرن اهمیت مضاعف پیدا کرد، این است که کرونا همچون دیگر شرور با آشکارکردن عجز و ناتوانی بشر پیشرفته امروزی در مواجهه با پدیده مرگ، عرصه را برای بازاندیشی در فلسفه حیات - که در هیاهوی مدرنیسم به محاق فراموشی رفته است - گشود. نتیجه حاصل از این کاوش بیان کننده این واقعیت است که برخلاف انتظار، حادثه کرونا نه تنها سکولاریسم را تقویت نکرده، نیاز حیاتی انسان برخوردار از همه مواهب مادی را به فریادرسی نجات دهنده به وضوح آشکار کرده و پرده از این واقعیت برداشته که هرچند جهان به لحاظ مادیت از خود نومید شده، به لحاظ معنویت، همچنان نیاز به دین و نقش آفرینی در حیات برای تقویت روحی بشر از رهگذر معنابخشی به فلسفه حیات به قوت خود باقی است. با ظهور کرونا و آشکارشدن ضعف انسان، بیش از گذشته، حتی اگر به دلیل تعطیلی مناسک دینی جمعی، ادعا شود این بیماری موجب تقویت دینداری نیست، دست کم آثار و نشانه ها بیان کننده آن اند که کرونا مردم را از دین دور نکرده و نخواهد کرد که این الهیات شر را با چالشی جدی مواجه کرده است.

    کلیدواژگان: کرونا، دین، بحران، معنا، مدرنیته
  • حسن بشیر*، محمد اصغری، جواد صبوری کزج صفحات 33-60

    فراگیری بیماری کرونا بحران بزرگ جهانی است که کلیه نقاط جهان را درگیر خود کرده است. در کشور جمهوری اسلامی ایران نیز درخصوص این بیماری چالش هایی درباره برخورد نهاد دین با این مسیله به وجود آمده است. در مقاله حاضر، ضمن به کارگیری روش تحلیل گفتمان تلاش شد نظر مراجع دینی شیعی در این رابطه بررسی شود و گفتمان آنان در چارچوب نظریه مدیریت هماهنگ، معنا و نظریه گفتمان تحلیل شود. مراجع دینی مطالعه شده عبارت اند از: آیت الله حسینی سیستانی، آیت الله مکارم شیرازی، آیت الله جوادی آملی، آیت الله وحید خراسانی، آیت الله نوری همدانی، آیت الله شبیری زنجانی و آیت الله فیاض. تحلیل گفتمان های مزبور بیان کننده چهار دال فراگفتمانی فراگیر در گفتمان علمای مطالعه شده است که نشان دهنده نگاه کلان علمای مزبور به حل بحران کرونا است که عبارت اند از: 1- عمل به توصیه های بهداشتی؛ 2- دعا و توسل کردن؛ 3- گسترش فقه پویا و 4- حل مشکلات اجتماعی.

    کلیدواژگان: روحانیت شیعه، کرونا، گفتمان، تحلیل گفتمان پدام، مدیریت هماهنگ معنا
  • سهیلا بوجاری طالخونچه، اعظم پرچم*، حامد نظرپور صفحات 61-70

    از دیدگاه ادیان الهی، عالم ملکوت حقیقت و باطن عالم ملک است و شرارت موجود در عالم ملک، جدای از عالم ملکوت نیست؛ ازاین رو، در علت و چرایی حضور شرارت در عالم ملکوت و کیفیت آن چالش هایی وجود دارد؛ چالش اول: تناقض شرارت با ربوبیت پروردگار بر عالم ملکوت و با مقام علم خداوند. چالش دوم: فرشتگان به عنوان دسته ای از حاملان عرش که در هدایت انسان نقش دارند؛ چه رابطه ای با شرارت دارند و بر رستگاری و کمال انسان چه تاثیرهایی می گذارند. این پژوهش درصدد است تا براساس منابع قرآن، تفاسیر و روایات معتبر و منابع عهدین و تفاسیر آن، به خاستگاه شرارت در عالم ملکوت و پیامدهای ناشی از آن بپردازد و در این راستا، اشتراک و اختلاف های موجود را بررسی کند. از رهیافت های این پژوهش عبارت اند از: شرارت در قرآن به منطقه عرش و مقام علم الهی و حاملان عرش راه ندارد؛ بلکه فقط در مرحله ملکوت اسفل و با حضور جنیان است. ابلیس، رییس آنها فقط قدرت وسوسه آدم را دارد؛ اما در عهدین، شرارت در سطح فرشتگان و به سبب عصیان عمدی علیه پروردگار رخ می دهد؛ ازاین رو، بخشی از ملکوت که محل حضور فرشتگان است با شرارت آمیخته شده است که با ربوبیت الهی و مقام علم پرودگار تناسب ندارد.

    کلیدواژگان: قرآن، عهدین، ملکوت، شر، عرش
  • سید سعیدرضا منتظری*، مجید طامه، سعیده شریفی صفحات 71-84

    یکی از اشتراکات غالب تمدن های کهن، اعتقاد به وجود نوعی نظم مقدس کیهانی بوده است. این اعتقاد و باور، مردمان را ناگزیر و ملزم می ساخت تا حیات خویش را اعم از مادی و معنوی با اصول و قوانین ثابت ازلی و ابدی نظام مقدس کیهانی همسو سازند. طبیعتا سرپیچی از این نظام مقدس نیز ناروا و غیرمجاز بود. نمونه هایی از واژگان ناظر به مفهوم نظم کیهانی عبارت اند از: در سنت هندی رته (ṛta) که بعدها به دهرمه (dharma) تبدیل شد، در باورهای زرتشتی اشه، در مصر باستان ماعت (Maʽat)، در آیین بودایی دهرمه، در مسیحیت لوگوس، در یونان باستان دایکو یا منوس، در خاور دور تایو یا دایو و در اسلام وحدت. این یکپارچگی و نظم، عالم تکوین و تشریع را در بر می گیرد و به حیات انسانی در ابعاد فردی و اجتماعی در تنظیم روابط با خود، با دیگر موجودات و با آفریدگار هویتی اصیل و ماندگار می بخشد. در این سنت ها ضمن تاکید بر اهمیت نظم و راستی و درستی در انتظام امور هستی و تعاملات بشری، بر رابطه تنگاتنگ نظم و راستی با سعادت و نجات تصریح شده است. همچنین، درک وجود نظم کیهانی و اخلاقی در فهم عمیق تر نسبت به حقایق هستی نقشی بی بدیل و ارزنده دارد. از ویژگی های مشترک اسطوره های ایران باستان و مصر باستان، مفهوم نظم کیهانی است که در تجلیات گوناگون شخصیت های آنها نمودار شده است. تجلی این مفهوم نه تنها در جلوه بصری، از نظر اعمال و جایگاه وجه نمادین آنها نیز تامل پذیر است. هرچند به ظاهر اشخاص و اعمال اساطیری این دو تمدن کاملا با یکدیگر منطبق نیستند، با دقت در بین ایزدان می توان میان ایزد اشه در ایران و ماعت در مصر، که هر دو به معانی «راستی، عدالت» و «نظم اخلاقی» اشاره دارند، وجه مشترکی یافت.

    کلیدواژگان: اشه، اخلاق، عدالت اجتماعی، ماعت، نظم کیهانی
  • قاسمعلی کابلی*، سید حسن میردیلمی صفحات 85-98
    کرونا یکی از ویروس های بسیار کشنده و فراگیر در سطح جهان تاکنون، آثار مستقیم بهداشتی و نیز آثاری در حوزه اخلاق بوده است که ازجمله آن خودگروی اخلاقی است. تفکر مراقبتی، مراقبت در نحوه اندیشیدن است که به تفکر ارزش گذار یا ستایشی، عاطفی، فعال، هنجاری و همدلانه تقسیم می شود. دیگرگروی اخلاقی از دیدگاه های مطرح در حوزه اخلاق هنجاری نتیجه گرا است که مبنای فعل یا یک قاعده اخلاقی را بیشترین خیر برای مردم، فارغ از نفع شخصی می داند. هدف پژوهش حاضر، بررسی و تحلیل دو دیدگاه تفکر مراقبتی و دیگرگروی اخلاقی از منظر قرآن کریم و استفاده از آن در شرایط کرونایی است. روش به کاررفته در این پژوهش، تحلیل تطبیقی و شیوه گردآوری داده ها از نوع کتابخانه ای است. یافته ها و نتایج نشان می دهند میان برخی از اصول تفکر دیگرگروی اخلاقی و برخی مولفه های تفکر مراقبتی اشتراکاتی وجود دارد که به برخی از مصادیق عینی آنها در قرآن کریم تاکید شده است.
    کلیدواژگان: کرونا ویروس، قرآن کریم، تفکر مراقبتی، دیگرگروی
  • زهرا روستائی، محمدمهدی آجیلیان مافوق* صفحات 99-116

    مسلمانان و غیر مسلمانان از دیرباز به چگونگی وحی الهی بر پیامبران و به ویژه حضرت محمد(ص) توجه داشته اند و پاسخ ها و نظریاتی در طول قرون و اعصار در این باب بیان شده است. برخی از این نظریات وحی را مفهومی غیر مادی و دسته ای از معانی دانسته اند که به پیامبر وحی شده و ایشان، آن را در قالب الفاظ ریخته و به مردم بیان کرده است؛ درمقابل، برخی به وحیانی بودن توامان الفاظ و معانی قرآن قایل اند. طبق آیات و روایات، وحی تنها معنا نبوده است؛ بلکه الفاظ قرآن نیز وحیانی اند؛ اما اینکه چگونه و در چه مرحله ای از نزول وحی، معانی به الفاظ تبدیل شده اند، خداوند این کار را مستقیما انجام داده یا جبرییل، در عالم ماده بوده یا عالم مجرد، ازجمله مسایل بررسی شده در این مقاله است. این تحقیق با استفاده از منابع مکتوب و به شیوه توصیفی، انتقادی و تحلیلی به نظریه ای می رسد که فرایند نزول وحی بر پیامبر در دو سطح مختلف رخ داده است؛ به این صورت که ابتدا خداوند محتوا و معانی را (با یا بدون واسطه جبرییل) بر قلب پیامبر وارد کرده و سپس این معانی و قول ثقیل با نظارت و کمک جبرییل به الفاظی تبدیل شده است که عامه مردم درک کنند و سبب هدایت مردم باشد.

    کلیدواژگان: وحی، کنش و واکنش وحیانی، مستشرقان، دیالکتیک و حیانی
  • حمزه علی بهرامی*، عبدالرسول مشکات صفحات 117-132

    هرچند در نگاه بدوی، مدرنیته نوگرا و سلفیه بنیادگرا، درنهایت واگرایی و تباعد با یکدیگر به نظر می آیند، با اندکی تحقیق و تدقیق، مشترکات فکری این دو گفتمان رخ خواهد کرد و آن انگاره ابتدایی را تا حدی دگرگون خواهد کرد. این پژوهش با روشی مقایسه ای، اسنادی و تحلیلی در پی شناخت ماهیت معرفت شناسی این دو گفتمان و نشان دادن جنبه های اشتراکی آنها در کنار سویه های افتراقی شان است. یافته های پژوهش نشان می دهند باور به معرفت نقلی و وحیانی، از حوزه های اختلافی اندیشه سلفیه سنتی با گفتمان مدرنیته نواندیش است؛ اما پذیرش معرفت تجربی و حسی و نفی معرفت فلسفی - متافیزیکی و همچنین، نفی معرفت شهودی از جنبه های اشتراکی هر دو گفتمان است. پیامد معرفت شناسی هر دو گفتمان، ارایه یک هستی شناسی ماتریالیستی و مادی است؛ بنابراین، تقدس زدایی و راززدایی و باطن زدایی و روح زدایی از جهان و انسان، وجه مشترک هر دو نظام فکری است. در اندیشه سلفیان سنتی، خداوند، عقل، عوالم غیبی، فرشتگان، روح، وحی و... به نوعی مادی تلقی می شوند.

    کلیدواژگان: معرفت شناسی، مدرنیته، سلفیه، سلفیه سنتی
  • رضا گندمی نصرآبادی* صفحات 133-148

    ژیلسون تنها در یک مورد واژه تاریخ تطبیقی فلسفه را به کار برده و در بقیه موارد به لفظ مقایسه و تطبیق بسنده کرده است؛ در عین حال، مطالعات تطبیقی او بیشتر از جنس فلسفه تطبیقی است. نگاه ژیلسون به تطبیق بیشتر نگاه ابزاری بود و همواره تلاش می کرد از رهگذر مطالعات تطبیقی تجربه های مشابه فلسفی را آشکار سازد و نیز آنها را به یک تجربه فرو کاهد یا از میان دیدگاه های متعدد و متنوع به چند خانواده مهم برسد و بدین سان بین فلسفه های به ظاهر متعارض آشتی و سازش برقرار کند. او این مهم را با عزل نظر از تاریخ ظاهری و بیرونی و بذل توجه به تاریخ درونی و ارتباط و پیوند ضروری میان مفاهیم انجام می داد. دغدغه اصلی ژیلسون، تبیین دیدگاه های فلسفی مشابه بود. او باوجود نقشی که برای جامعه و نبوغ فیلسوف در شکل گیری اندیشه ها قایل بود، آنها را به تنهایی کافی نمی دانست؛ ازاین رو، بر نقش بی بدیل تاریخ درونی و ارتباط ضروری میان مفاهیم تاکید داشت. به گمان او، تشابه دیدگاه ها از تجربه ای واحد و مشابه به درازای تاریخ از ماهیت معرفت فلسفی حکایت می کند. ژیلسون دامنه فلسفه تطبیقی را به فلسفه غرب محدود کرد؛ اما براساس مبانی او می توان فراتر رفت و تجربه ها و خانواده های فلسفی را به سنت های فلسفی دیگر نیز تعمیم داد. ژیلسون هیچ گاه از روش خاصی نام نبرده است و نگارنده با الهام از روش طبقه بندی خانواده های حقوقی، یکی از روش های برتر تطبیقی در آن حوزه، روش ژیلسون را روش تطبیقی طبقه بندی خانواده های فلسفی می نامد.

    کلیدواژگان: ژیلسون، فلسفه تطبیقی، تاریخ درونی، مخالفت با تاریخگرایی، روش خانواده های فلسفی
  • غلامحسین خدری* صفحات 149-162

    والتر ترنس استیس (1886-1967م)، فیلسوف نظریه پرداز قرن بیستم، نتیجه ضروری غلبه روحیه علمی و ابتنای برخی پیش فرض های بنیادین در علوم جدید از قرن هفدهم به بعد (که تصویر سنتی جهان مالوف و تحت حاکمیت بی چون و چرای ارزش های دینی و معنوی را کاملا متزلزل کرده است) را ظهور بحران های سه گانه بی معنایی زندگی، نسبیت در اخلاق و موجبیت در افعال انسان مدرن می داند. ملاصدرا (1572-1640م) در حالی که معناداری را به سان استیس به هدف از زندگی گره زده است، کمال و سعادت این هدف را در فرایند گذر ارادی از سفرهای چهارگانه از خود تا خداوند، در قرب و فناء فی الله می داند. او براساس مبانی حکمت متعالیه، حرکت جوهری در عالم هستی، سیر انسان به سوی حق، زندگی معنادار را امری حتمی و برخلاف استیس این باور است که تنها اعتقاد به خدا و غایت انگاری اوست که موجب برطرف کردن بحران بی معنایی می شود. پرسش معنای زندگی از منظر استیس و مقایسه آن با ملاصدرا که در دو سنت متمایز و نتایج مخالف تفلسف کرده اند، با روش توصیفی تحلیلی، غایت قصوای این خامه است.

    کلیدواژگان: استیس، ملاصدرا، بی معنایی زندگی، هدف، علوم جدید، انسان مدرن
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  • Abuzar Rajabi *, Morsal Azizi Pages 1-16

    Islamic thinkers do not think alike about understanding similar verses and the issue of the appearance and interiority of verses, and sometimes there are fundamental differences between them. Al-Ghazali and Ibn Rushd are in favor of using the method of interpretation in understanding similar verses and considering the way of escaping from the challenge and conflict of appearance and the inner self using the approach of interpretation. Ibn Rushd was famous for opposing Al-Ghazali and writing the book Tahaft Al-Tahaft in his critique of Tahaft al-Ghazali philosophers. Despite the criticisms, he is influenced by Al-Ghazali in some cases, and especially in the matter of interpretation. Al-Ghazali has two approaches encountering the problem of interpretation in two intellectual periods, in both of which he has been able to provide a new model by presenting a special approach in interpretation so that others can take a step in this direction and achieve a methodical understanding of religious texts. He has benefited a lot from this research model in understanding Ibn Rushd's text. According to the research findings, Ibn Rushd was influenced by Ghazali both in the nature of interpretation and in the reasoning and necessity of accepting it, as well as in the means of approaching interpretation. In the present descriptive-analytical study, the influence of Ibn Rushd from Ghazali on the issue of interpretation has been investigated.Al-Ghazali and Ibn Rushd are both advocates of using the method of interpretation in understanding the text. Although Ghazali is one of the Ash'arite theologians, in the matter of interpretation in both intellectual periods, he distances himself from thinkers such as Abul Hassan Ash'ari, Baqalani, and Jovini and accepts the methodical interpretation in understanding many verses of the Holy Qur'an. Methodology and adherence to a disciplined mechanism in interpretation are the characteristics of using this method by Al-Ghazali.Ibn Al-Rushd, like Al-Ghazali, does not see a conflict between the outward and inward meaning of the verses of the Holy Qur'an. Interpretation is a method that philosophers have the right to use in understanding the Holy Qur'an. Although this method raised serious objections to Al-Ghazali, it is influenced by Al-Ghazali’s interpretation. Ibn Al-Rushd mentions Al-Ghazali in many cases and considers Ghazali's method in this regard to be correct. He speaks about the nature of interpretation, the necessity of paying attention to it, its types and varieties, the division of the audience of revelation, and the permission and impermissibility of interpretation like Al-Ghazali.

    Keywords: Interpretation, Ghazali, Ibn Rushd, appearance, interior, Firm, Similar, Conflict between Reason, Religion
  • Mojtaba Attarzadeh * Pages 17-32

    Following the outbreak of Corona disease, many fundamental questions were raised in various political, economic, and social spheres about the present and future of human societies, each of which looked at the many aspects of the impact of this subversive crisis. One of the most important questions that can be answered to help calmly confront this deadly phenomenon and prevent significant psychological damage from the fear of death is the issue of "the meaning of life". This is a detailed discussion that has been going on for a long time and has been intensified in the recent period.In fact, Corona, by proving the inability of modern thought which, by reducing perceptions to mental, quantitative, and experiential levels had caused ignoring any spiritual connection between humans and the universe to an unseen origin and denying any connection between God and the world. Corona provides a logical interpretation in the face of the evils and sufferings of the world that can calm the savage human being from such things and proved that in spite of enjoying the experience of various manifestations of material pleasure and entertainment, anxiety and feeling of emptiness and meaninglessness which annoyed humans, have been intensified due to mental problems and feelings of insecurity.The inability of the most advanced countries in the world to control the dangerous Corona disease shocked the depressed primordial nature of the modern man, who, relying on his intellectual and scientific abilities, claimed to be able to solve all problems in many aspects alone, and realized the inefficiency of secular science (claimant of the end of the religion era) in the face of security and health crisis. The emergence and spread of this virus as the cause of disease and threat to the human race, and the increasing probability of death led many to think about the meaning of life. As a result, the modern human, which either ignored religion or took a demanding and right-wing stance and spoke of human expectations from God and religion, did not find any solid source of meaning as a shelter to endure the hardships of Corona except religious teachings.The hypothesis of the current study in response to the main question of this study (i.e. How has Corona, as a symbol of evil theology, influenced the manifestation of human’s meaning-seeking through inclination towards religion?) is that human consciousness is aware of its inability to prevent death. Despite the remarkable scientific advances in the face of Corona, Man’s growing awakening to the sluggishness and fragility of earthly life, and the need for a rational justification of the philosophy of life and its meaning, attracted him more and more to the meaningful dimension of religion. The results show that contrary to the notion that Corona leads to the growth of secularism and the decline of religion, it revived religion, not as a reaction against secularization, but as a result of which humans seriously challenged the theology of evil.

    Keywords: corona, religion, CRISIS, Meaning, modernity
  • Hasan Bashir *, Mohammad Asghari, Javad Sabouri Kazaj Pages 33-60

    Religion has a prominent place and role in Iran. During the pandemic of Corona, the institution of religion has been considered and some issues related to the encounter of this institution and the spread of Corona disease in cyberspace, such as closing or not closing religious places and holding or not holding religious rituals, have been challenged and taken into account. Regarding the institution of religion associated with the problem of the spread of Corona disease, the discovery of the relationship between the two issues of "health and science" and "religion" from the perspective of Shiite religious scholars and authorities is important. The "interdisciplinary nature" of this article was considered based on two aspects: 1) The issue of Corona was a comprehensive issue that could be studied using an interdisciplinary approach and regarded from a communication and cultural perspective as it fell in the health category and 2) The theoretical framework of this research was based on the theory of "Coordinated Management of Meaning (CMM)", which was one of the theories in the field of intercultural communication that was related to the interdisciplinary field.This article sought to discover the discourse of the religious scholars studying the Shiite world related to the Iranian society with regard to the issue of Corona. These Shiite religious scholars and authorities, who were studied in this research, were as follows: Ayatollah Seyyed Ali Hosseini Sistani, Ayatollah Nasser Makarem Shirazi, Ayatollah Abdullah Javadi Amoli, Ayatollah Hussein Vahid Khorasani, Ayatollah Hossein, Ayatollah Nouri Hamedani, Ayatollah Musa Shobiri Zanjani, and Ayatollah Mohammad Ishaq Fayyaz. In the meantime, a comparative view of the religious scholars’ positions was pursued and it was tried to discover the significance of their positions.This research was based on a qualitative method. The data collection was based on citing the Internet sites. A Practical Discourse Analysis Method (PDAM) was utilized for analyzing the data and discovering the discourse and extra discourse signs. The analysis unit included parts of the lectures related to and writings on the subject of this research, which were based on theoretical saturation and were available on the Internet. The reviews were done for the period of 2020/02/19-2020/08/20.The discourse and meta-discourse of the Shiite religious scholars and authorities on the issue of Corona were discovered separately and in detail through PDAM. A summary of the analyzed discourses was considered in the two levels of Coordinated Management of Meaning (CMM) and the discourse related to it. Although all the three interpretive, critical, and applied approaches were regarded by these discourses, the interpretive and applied approaches were mostly emphasized. These were the two approaches that Shiite religious scholars and authorities had taken into account for resolving the Corona crisis. it was based on an interpretation through application of dynamic jurisprudence for interpretation of social situations and making appropriate decisions that were even contrary to the religious obligations. In this context, they interpreted and explained the relationship between prayer and healing. They did not consider health as the final solution to problems and considered prayer and recourse as complementary solutions and linked treatment and health with prayer and recourse. The following table summarizes the mentioned interpretive and applied approaches:A detailed summary of meta-discourse signs relevant to the discourses studied by Shiite scholarsMetaphorical SignsReligious scholarsApplied approachInterpretive approachFollowing health recommendationsSolving social problemsExpansion of dynamic jurisprudencePraying and appealing Obedience to officialsSocial problemsDynamic jurisprudenceSpirituality and prayerAyatollah Seyyed Ali Hosseini SistaniSanitation and HealthPublic mobilization, social problems, awakening of humanityDynamic jurisprudencePrayer, spirituality, spirituality Ayatollah Nasser Makarem ShiraziHealth and safetyAttention to humanityFuturism and civilizationGod and prayerAyatollah Abdullah Javadi AmoliHealth professionalsElders of religion and attention to issues-Divine test, divine wisdom, and prayAyatollah Hussein Vahid KhorasaniExpertsPrayer, recourse, repentance--Ayatollah Hossein Nouri HamedaniHealthSocial problems and loss of lifeDynamic jurisprudence and the closure of ritualsPrayer and recourseAyatollah Musa Shabbiri ZanjaniAdherence to and coordination with domestic and global health-Dynamic jurisprudence and necessity-Ayatollah Mohammad Ishaq Fayyaz After discovering the discourse of the Shiite religious scholars and authorities on the issue of Corona, which was done independently and by summarizing their meta-discourse signs that expressed the macro views of these scholars to solve the Corona crisis, 4 comprehensive discourses were discovered as follows: 1) Taking health advice; 2) Praying and appealing; 3) Expanding dynamic jurisprudence; and 4) Solving social problemsMetaphorical Signs of Discourses Studied by Scholars  The innovation of this research was paying attention to the role of religion in the issue of Corona disease and religious leaders’ views about it. By discovering the discourse and meta-discourse of Shiite religious scholars and authorities, it was possible to take a more accurate and realistic look at their positions in relation to the issue of Corona and clarify the relationship between the institution of religion and such issues as the Corona crisis.

    Keywords: Shiite clergy, corona, Discourse, Practical Discourse Analysis Method (PDAM), Coordinated ‎Management of Meaning (CMM)‎
  • Soheila Bojari Talkhoncheh, Azam Parcham *, Hamed Nazarpoor Pages 61-70

    The divine religions believe that the cosmos of the ‘Malakut’ is the truth and the interior of the cosmos of the ‘Molk’, and the evil in the ‘Molk’ cosmos is not unrelated to the ‘Malakut’ cosmos. Hence, there are challenges about the cause of the presence of evil in the ‘Malakut cosmos’ and its quality. The first challenge is the contradiction of evil with the Lordship of God in the ‘Malakut cosmos’ and with the position of knowledge and science of God. The second challenge is Angels as a group of heavenly creatures who are involved in guiding man. What do they have about the evil and what effects do they have on human salvation and perfection? This research intends to study the origin of evil in the ‘Malakut cosmos’ and its consequences based on the sources of the Qur'an, authentic interpretations and narrations, and the sources of the Old and New Testaments and their interpretations, and to examine the commonalities and differences in the origin of evil.The results of this research showed that evil in the Qur'an has no way to the region of the Throne and the position of divine knowledge and angels; rather, it is only in the lower stage of the ‘Malakut cosmos’ along with the presence of jinns. Their chief; the devil, has only the power to tempt man; but in the Old and New Testaments, wickedness occurs at the level of angels because of deliberate rebellion against the Lord. So, the part of the Malakut where the angels are present is mixed with evil, which is not fit with the divine Lordship and the position of the knowledge of God. However, numerous studies have been written about the Throne and Evil so far. Among them, we can mention the article ‘a comparison of Adam's generation to Noah and the evil of man in the journey of Genesis’ (Homaei, 2005) and ‘a comparative study of the Throne in Jewish and Islamic mysticism’ (Miralaei et al., 2013). However, in none of these works has the ‘Malakut cosmos’ been considered educationally and they have not studied evil in the ‘Malakut cosmos’ and its effects on the ‘Molk’.According to the Qur'an, evil cannot reach the highest level of the ‘Malakut’ and the level of angels; because the Divine Throne is the place of absolute Lordship and the place of knowledge of God. Divine saints and angels are the executors of God's plans in the universe. Prophets and Imams, as a group of bearers of the Divine Throne, are aware of all events with their dominion over the ‘Malakut’, and with the knowledge of the presence of science (Hozuri) (A'raf: 54) and the guardianship that they have in the population of divine servants, they are in charge of guiding the people. They take evolutionary possession of the universe. And with the guardianship of the divine servants in the population, they are in charge of guiding the people and intervening in the evolution of the universe. They also have the characteristic of infallibility due to the mission of guiding creatures. Hence, the nature of divine knowledge and infallibility are not commensurate with evil. It is worth mentioning that another group of unseen beings, who intend to obtain unseen news from the Throne ‘Malakut’, are jinns. According to narrative sources, Satan was expelled from the ‘Malakut’ after the birth of the Prophet (PBUH). Therefore, he will never be able to enter the kingdom. According to his promise, “I swear by your honor that I will deceive them all” (Al-Hijr: 39) with the temptation of human beings and through his demonic powers, he commits evil in the universe.Therefore, the field of evil is the material world (the lower realm) and the creation of evil by the infidel jinns is done under the rule of Satan, and the divine world as the throne (Molk) of God is free from evil. In fact, the Qur'an attributes evil to demons from the jinn, who are not among the agents of existence and are mere beings who intend to enter the ‘ Malakut’ and access the unseen news. But God by the heavenly guards (al-Safat: 10) prevents them from penetrating the Malakut of heaven and the world of the Throne.Considering that in the Old Testament, the Throne ('Arsh) means government and kingdom, domination, and authority, and in the Old and New Testaments, the ‘Malakut’ is used in the sense of government; hence, the throne ('Arsh) and the ‘Malakut’ can be placed next to each other.The terms ‘Malakut’ of God and ‘Malakut’ of heaven are widely used in the New Testament (14 times in the Gospel of Mark, 39 times in the Gospel of Luke, and 32 times in the Gospel of Matthew). One of the concepts that is closely related to the Malakut is the Throne (A'rsh), which from the perspective of the Old and New Testaments is the center of the issuance of divine commands (1 King, 8:30; Daniel, 2:28; Matthew, 5:45). The New Testament speaks on the one hand of the Throne of God, the Throne of the Lamb and the Throne of God's Companions, and on the other hand, refers to the Throne of God's enemies and opponents, that is, the devil and the beast. In fact, from the point of view of the Old and New Testaments, the Divine Throne is the place where the affairs of the universe rule there, and the lamb, the conquerors, the 24 spiritual leaders and the judges are the executors of the Lord's plans. On the other hand, Satan, among the divine opponents, with his subordinates, in opposition to the divine throne, makes the universe the center of his evil deeds and claims kingship and sovereignty. Eventually, at the end of history, his wicked rule will be broken by Christ.The Old and New Testaments believe that due to the presence of evil angels led by Satan in the Malakut and deliberate rebellion against God, with the motive of seeking supremacy over him and taking the place of God, there is also evil in the supreme Malakut. In fact, in the Divine Throne where the Lamb and 24 spiritual leaders and judges are present, because of their infallibility, no evil will occur on their part in the Malakut (throne). Rather, due to the presence of evil angels in the Malakut, evil has occurred in the supreme Malakut by this group of angels because of their deliberate rebellion against God, and from there, it has spread to the realm of the kingdom. In other words, the Old and New Testaments believe that the origin of the evils in the world is the Throne (Malakut). Due to the presence of evil angels in the Malakut and as a result of their sin and fall, evil has found its way to it.

    Keywords: The Quran, Covenants, Kingdom, evil, Throne.‎
  • Sayyed Saeid Reza Montazeri *, Majid Tame, Saeide Sharifi Pages 71-84

    Old civilizations are often characterized by the belief in some sacred cosmic order, which compelled people to adapt their material and spiritual lives to constant eternal principles and laws of a sacred cosmic order. By ‘cosmic order’ we mean an impersonal global order in virtue of which all affairs of the world are organized, including both moral and natural orders. The concern for coming to grip with this order, to understand its nature and its performance, is presented in terms of mythological, religious, and practical explanations. Holy scriptures have sought to respond to this human concern, including Avesta, the script of Zoroastrians, and a papyrus written in hieroglyph characters in Egypt.The doctrine of cosmic order has been a center of attention in ancient eastern cultures. In the Avestan language, such a cosmic order has been called Asha. In Hindu Vedas, the term appears as ṛta, and in ancient Persian epigraphy, it appears as ṛta in proper names (such as “Ṛtaxshaҫa” or Ardashir). In the present study, the significance of cosmic order or Asha comes from characteristics such as justice, moderation, fairness, honesty, and individual rights. It is originally an Ahuric eternal law, encompassing the entire cosmos and morality.Asha literally means “ideal truth” and is indeed the “law of Yazata”. Moreover, Asha has the obligation to manifest this law to maintain justice in the society. Originally, Asha is an eternal cosmic law, which encompasses both cosmos and the individual and social ethics of humans. The term Asha frequently appears both in Gathas and in later Avesta, which is indicative of the significance of this notion in Zoroastrian thoughts. It might be said that the Zoroastrian notion of Asha is not only the apparent order but also a realization of the eternal cosmic order, in light of which the creation has taken place. Asha might be seen as a manifestation of reason and an eternal project of Ahura Mazda for the creation of the world, in which the maintenance of the world is also made possible by Asha. Moreover, the survival of human beings and other entities in the world is also secured by Asha.The term Asha-vahishta (the best truth) also appears in Gathas. In Zoroastrianism, Asha-vahishta was believed to be the second Amesha Spenta after Vohu-manah. In Zoroaster’s psalms, it is explicitly said that Mazda was the Father, which suggests the existential nature of Asha. Since Ahura Mazda was the root or origin of the “truth” and identical with the “absolute truth”, Asha might also be construed as the “truth that appeared in the world”. In this respect, if Vohu-manah is seen as a manifestation of divine reason in the world of appearances and souls, Asha should count as a manifestation of divine order in the universe.In the ancient Egyptian culture, the order was very precious and sacred, such that all members of the society were responsible for the creation and maintenance of order, and order appeared in all subsidiary forms. In the ancient Egyptian civilization, this fundamental global and constant element was called Maʽat, which was of such a high ranking that it presented all physical and spiritual entities. Maʽat was first mentioned in stories of peasants since it enabled villagers to attain justice in their respective circumstances.In Egyptian beliefs, there was a close tie between cosmic events, which revealed the nature of divine life, and the notion of Maʽat. Indeed, the latter was a system that was created by the God of the Sun (Ra) as the creator of the world at the beginning of time and forever. Maʽat was expressive of the truth, honesty, and justice. It was portrayed as a lady whose head was covered by ostrich feathers. It was an inseparable part of Ra and Osiris. Maʽat was a goddess who secured Heaven for Egyptians.In ancient Egyptian mythology, Maʽat was believed to have two dimensions: terrestrial and divine. In the former, Maʽat was a symbol of the global and terrestrial norm- an equilibrium dominating the entire world, a justice that enables honesty, and an order that serves as a criterion for assessment of people’s deeds. In the latter, Maʽat is simultaneously the mother, the daughter, and the wife of Ra. Moreover, it is the spiritual sister of the Pharaoh. It is responsible for maintaining the balance in the cosmos, and it is by its virtue that the world is administered with harmony and coherence.According to ancient Egyptian beliefs, the souls of the dead were judged in a great hall belonging to Maʽat. In that hall, gods took out the dead’s heart and put it on a scale pan, behind which the Goddess Maʽat stood. On the other scale pan, there was a feather as a symbol of honesty and justice, that is, a symbol of Maʽat. If the dead’s heart was lighter than the feather, this meant that the dead person had done good deeds in his or her life, and thus, he or she deserved to go to Osiris, but if its heart was heavier than the feather, it meant that the dead person had committed indecent acts in the world of the living beings, and hence, he or she deserved to be punished and destroyed.By and large, the notions or functions of Asha and Maʽat might be said to share the following characteristics: (1) both meant cosmic order, truth, and justice, and were opposed to symbols of disorder, chaos, and falsehoods, (2) both were constant and stable forces in the world and had high rankings in the hierarchy of deities, (3) given the notion of law and order, they both had roles to play in ideal governments or monarchies, and (4) compliance with Asha and Maʽat could lead to salvation at the final judgment or the day of resurrection.Overall, one of the most fundamental shared notions between Mazdaean and ancient Egyptian beliefs was that of Asha and Maʽat. Their wide-ranging meanings notwithstanding, the two notions point to the existence of cosmic order in the whole being. Furthermore, the belief in Asha or Maʽat was first and foremost a belief in there being an eternal order in the being or cosmos, which serves as the exemplar of human life. Asha and Maʽat have pervasive individual and social dimensions, acting upon which seemingly counted as an essence of the entire cosmic order in both Zoroastrian and ancient Egyptian beliefs.

    Keywords: Cosmic Order, Asha, Maʽat, Ethics, Justice.‎
  • Ghasem Ali Kaboli *, Seyyed Hassan Mirdilmi Pages 85-98
    Corona has been one of the most deadly and pervasive viruses in the world so far. It has left not only direct health effects, but also marginal effects on the field of ethics, including moral selfishness. Caring thinking means caring in the way of thinking. It is divided into value or praiseworthy thinking, emotional thinking, active thinking, normative thinking, and empathetic thinking. Another moral dilemma in the field of normative ethics is consequentialism, which considers an act or a moral rule to be more of a personal benefit to the people. In this research, the author’s purpose was to study and analyze these two types of thinking from the Quranic perspective while defining and expressing the principles and components of caring thinking and moral otherness. The results showed that differences in ontological and epistemological presuppositions make a difference in the way we look at otherness and caring thinking. Also, the components of those two thoughts, such as kindness and benevolence, kindness and love, and self-sacrifice, as well as the golden rule, cause a certain distance and closeness. For example, charity has otherworldly effects in addition to its worldly impacts in the Qur'anic view, while only worldly effects have been considered in Lippmann’s approach to otherness. The method used in this research was comparative analysis with the library method of data collection. The findings of this study indicated that there were similarities between some principles of ethical heterogeneity of thinking and some components of caring thinking. Some of their objective examples were emphasized in the Holy Quran. These principles included benevolence and charity, kindness, and self-sacrifice, along with the golden rule, which were close to the examples of the components of value thinking, active thinking, empathetic thinking, and normative thinking. However, in the context of the corona virus, the international community has tended towards moral selfishness, which has no place in the Iranian and Islamic culture and is not acceptable. As a result, it has caused many behavioral and cultural harms to the society. Therefore, to correct this behavior in the society and even at the global level, it is necessary to promote and teach other moral orientations and caring thinking based on religious and Islamic sources, especially the Holy Quran, which can be used as an educational plan, especially in the direction of ethical treatment of coronavirus.
    Keywords: Corona Virus, Holy Quran, caring thinking, otherness
  • Zahra Roostaie, Mohammad Mahdi Ajilian Mafogh * Pages 99-116

    In the analysis of revelation action and reaction, there are three questions: How and at what stage of revelation have meanings been transformed into words? Was this done directly by God or Gabriel, or did the Prophet also play a role in this process? Was the process of transmission of revelation in the material world or the abstract world? This descriptive-analytical study re-examines the perspective of Traditionalists and Orientalists regarding the revelation action and reaction by using the role of communication patterns while analyzing the quality and manner of revelation communication. It considers the process of revelation to the Prophet in two different levels. In this way, first, the content and meanings were revealed by God (with or without the mediation of Gabriel) to the Prophet's heart, and then these meanings (Qul Thaqeel) were transformed into words that could be understood and received by the people with the supervision and help of Gabriel. IntroductionAmong the issues disputed by Muslim theorists and Orientalists regarding revelation is the way of revelation communication between God and the Prophet (PBUH), the transmission of Quranic verses to people, and the role of the Prophet (PBUH) in this connection. Throughout history, Muslim scholars and Orientalists have expressed different opinions about the quality of this relationship. Muslim traditionalists and a group of orientalists such as Lyman and Izutsu believe that in the process of revelation, both the word and the meaning were revealed by God to the Prophet with or without the mediation of Gabriel. Another group of Orientalists, such as Bell and Macquarie, believe that only the content of the revelation was transmitted to the Prophet, and then he himself put these concepts into words. The third group of Orientalists believe that both the concepts and words of revelations are from the Prophet himself. In this view, the role of the Prophet's action is very important, because he understood some concepts with experience, discovery, and intuition and then put them into words. This research, while examining different theories regarding the dialectic of revelation, using the role of communication patterns, examines the nature and extent of the Prophet's action and reaction regarding the subject of revelation. After drawing a communication model suitable for each of the theories, this research presents a new model using verses; a model that describes the role of the Prophet (PBUH) separately in the stage of receiving and transmission. Materials and MethodsThis research analyzes the quality and manner of revelation communication in a descriptive, critical, and analytical manner, using the role of communication patterns. In the communication model used in the research, the four elements of the sender, receiver, communication channel, and codes (communication codes) are considered as the main elements. The sender and receiver are two general concepts related to each other, which can be used in four different ways: coder and code reader, addresser and addressee, sender and receiver device (technical device or even human), and writer and reader (when the message is written). Communication codes are also a set or system of rules for communication between signs (signs of communication) and meanings. Also, every linguistic communication takes place through a special channel, which is the conduit for message transmission.Since revelation is also a linguistic communication, it has patterns in which communicative components can be found. The important point in examining the revelation relationship between God and the Prophet (the vertical level of revelation) is that revelation, in addition to the sender and receiver, has a different communication channel and type of communication code, and it cannot be material. On the other hand, revelation in this state is alive and oral. In this connection, the sender is God and the revelatory action takes place at His will. The recipient of revelation is the Prophet (PBUH). The communication channel is a special and unnatural channel (discounting the heart or tongue). In addition to these three elements, the codes that include the message itself and its context are also one of the pillars of revelation communication. Examining these elements in the theories proposed regarding the revelation dialectic helps us to achieve the correct pattern expressed by each theory. In this research, based on the opinion of Muslim traditionalists and orientalists, the four elements of communication patterns in three theories of orthographic revelation, content revelation, and intuitive revelation have been examined and finally, the research theory has been presented. Discussion and Funding By examining the verses related to the subject of revelation, it becomes clear that the types of communication codes in the subject of revelation in the verses of the Qur'an are expressed differently. Sometimes these codes are of words and language (Naml: 6; Shouri: 51); sometimes they convey a difficult and heavy meaning (Qul Thaqeel) (Muzmal: 5). Also, three different transmission channels for this communication have been mentioned in the Quran, which include the heart, tongue, and ear. By using these points, one can assume that the revelation to the Prophet occurred on two levels. In this way, at the first level, the content and concepts of the revelation were revealed by God (through or without Gabriel) to the Prophet's heart. At this level, the channel of transmission of revelation is the heart, and the type of communication codes is something beyond words because words are not transmitted in the abstract world. On the other hand, the heart, which is described in verses of the Qur'an as the channel of transmission of revelation, is not suitable for receiving vocabulary and language. In the second level of revelation, the meanings and concepts revealed to the Prophet's heart, which according to the Qur'an are heavy words, are transformed into words that can be understood and accepted by the people with the supervision and help of Gabriel. At this level, based on the verses of the Quran, the channel of revelation is the ear and the tongue, and the types of communication codes are those words that can be understood and learned by humans, and therefore, they are guidance for people. Conclusion and Results Referring to the Qur’anic verses, there are three communication channels for the transmission of a revelation: heart, ear, and tongue. Each of these channels can have its own communication codes. The codes of the ear and language channels are material and of the word and language and belong to the material world. On the other hand, the codes of the heart channel are non-material and belong to the world of matter. In other words, the whole process of revelation communication in the Qur'an is done at two different levels and in a non-linear way. At the initial level, immaterial communication is established in the abstract world between God and the Prophet (PBUH) where non-verbal messages (content) are transferred to the Prophet's heart through the channel of the heart (sometimes with Gabriel's mediation and sometimes without mediation). At the second level of revelation communication, these meanings and contents are transformed into words. The transmission is done in the material world by the Prophet (PBUH) with the help and direct supervision of Gabriel in transforming meanings (Qul Thaqeel) into words (Qul Yasir) so that words can be transmitted to the general public. This level of revelation is light and guidance for all people.

    Keywords: Revelation, revelatory action, reaction, Orientalists, Revelatory Dialectic.‎
  • Hamzehali Bahrami *, Abdolrasool Meshkat Pages 117-132

    Epistemology or epistemology is a science that studies cognition, its sources and tools, and its methods and validity. Salafism (in general) is a social and religious thought and movement among the Sunnis, which gives intellectual authority to the Salaf (advanced Muslims). They believe in addition to the Qur'an and the Sunnah, following the way of the righteous Salaf is the way to happiness and the solution to the problems of the Islamic world. According to them, the first three Islamic centuries are the best Islamic periods. One of the main founders and theoreticians of this movement is Ahmed bin Abdul Halim bin Taymiyyah Harrani Hanbali (died 728) known as Ibn Taymiyyah.Modernity is used in the word to mean renewing or modernizing and giving originality to what is modern and contemporary. But the term refers to the thought, culture, and lifestyle ruling the new era, in the West, especially from the 18th century onwards. The indicators and components of modernity can be identified in two dimensions: ‘appearance and superstructure’ and ‘intellectual and infrastructure’. The external dimension includes aspects such as new knowledge and technology, modern architecture, new economic, and political and administrative structures. The intellectual aspect encompasses scientism and empiricism, belief in instrumental rationality and self-foundation, humanism, individualism, secularism and so on.Although in the primitive view, modernist modernity and fundamentalist Salafism seem to diverge from each other in the end, with a little research and scrutiny, the intellectual commonalities of these two discourses could change that initial perception to some extent. In this regard, the present comparative study seeks to investigate the nature of the epistemology of these two discourses and show their common and differential aspects using a documentary-analytical method.There could be some questions about the epistemological comparison of the discourse of modernity and traditional Salafism: Why are Salafist ideas (compared to the discourse of the Islamic Revolution) more aligned and cooperative with the modern West? Regardless of the political and profit purposes, does the modern western political support of some governments and Salafist movements and groups have anything to do with their common foundations? What are the reverse and direct influences of Salafist fundamentalists in the spread of ‘modern materialist and sensuous discourse’ in the Islamic world?There are some similarities between the  discourses of modernity and traditional Salafism (in the dominant reading). They both accept empirical and sensory epistemology. Besides, they both deny holistic reason and metaphysical wisdom and reduce the dignity of reason to instrumental and partial rationality. They both deny intuitive and mystical epistemology. Sensory epistemology has led to ontology and materialistic anthropology in both discourses. With a nasut-oriented approach, they have emptied human life of spirituality and esoteric approaches. Ignoring or disbelieving supernatural powers and denying miracles and human virtues are common aspects of both discourses. Moreover, both discourses present a materialistic ontology. Therefore, de-sanctification, de-mystification, de-introspection and de-spiritualization of the world and man is the common aspect of the ontology of both intellectual systems. In the thought of traditional Salafists, God, reason, unseen worlds, angels, spirit, revelation, etc., are considered materials.But the most important divergences and differences between Salafists and modernists are as follows: textualism and epistemology of narrative and revelation against rationality and science; believing tradition and retrospect against innovation and innovation; emotional theology and thought experience against Shariat theology; extreme bigotry and rites against tolerance and radical immorality; religious dogmatism and exclusivism against religious pluralism.

    Keywords: epistemology, Modernism, Salafist, Ibn Taymiyyah, Traditional Salafism.‎
  • Reza Gandomi Nasrabadi * Pages 133-148

    Gilson's concern was to explain similar views of different Western philosophical traditions. In fact, the main questions are as follows: How should the similarities between different traditions and schools of thought be justified? Are these similarities made by chance or by intelligible rules? In other words, either it must be admitted that there is no cause-and-effect relationship between two similar theories and thus rule out the discussion of one taking influence from the other or a suitable explanation should be provided. Gilson did not believe in chance and believed that there are comprehensible rules or explanations for schools of thought and philosophers’ similar views. The following explanations can be briefly mentioned: explanation based on apparent history and tracing influences (philosophical historians' explanation), historical materialism (the explanation sought by left-wing Hegelians and Marxists), explanation based on the spirit of time (explanation emphasized by Herder), explanation based on origin and single source (explanation preferred by traditionalists and theosophists), explanation based on transhistory (Corben and Toshihiko Izutsu), and explanation based on internal history (Gilson's preferred explanation).In Gilson's view, a purely historical approach should not be taken to philosophies. In other words, instead of the external history, the internal history and the necessity of ideas should be considered. He extracted similar philosophical experiences through the inner history of ideas and spoke of the unity and common nature of experiences in at least two historical periods of the Middle Ages and the New Age. To explain similar views, Gilson used a method that he called the method of classifying philosophical families. His method of classifying and reducing the different thinkers’ views to several families or several similar experiences, in addition to facilitating learning of different philosophies, leads the reader to the depths of thoughts and, in his own words, to the pure essence of thoughts. In his book entitled “Existence in the Philosophers' Thought”, he reduced the various views on the existence to 4 family: Platonic family as existence and unity, Aristotelian family as existence and essence, Sinaitic family as existence and nature, and Tomai family as existence and being. Deep knowledge of them and the possibility of better evaluation provided the next perspectives. He placed modern Western philosophers’ views on existence, from Descartes to Kierkegaard, under the Sinai family and by presenting their views in an independent chapter entitled “Existence versus Existence”, he showed that he was aware of their differences. In his book called “Wisdom and Revelation in the Middle Ages”, he followed the same procedure by reducing all views to the 3 families: Augustine family (precedence of faith over reason), the family of Ibn Rushdie (precedence of reason over faith), and Tomai family (harmony of reason and revelation). In his book entitled “Critique of Western Philosophical Thought”, he used the above method to enumerate similar experiences and reduce them to a single experience. In fact, in this book, the word “experience” has replaced the word “family”. According to him, those who give originality to a particular science, such as theology, mathematics, physics, logic, psychology, and sociology, will have similar experiences in the face of philosophical problems regardless of the school of thought or religion, to which they belong. And these seemingly different experiences will lead to one experience, that is, solving philosophical problems in a non-philosophical way. Thus, he first considers different thinkers, regardless of their religion or philosophy, in one family and then places all these families or different experiences in one larger family or a single experience. This is a brief overview of some of Gilson's similar experiences, i.e., similar experiences that solve philosophical problems through theology (by comparing Malbranesh's view with Ghazali’s), similar experiences that examine philosophical issues through psychology (by comparing David Hume’s view with William Ockham’s), similar experiences that examine philosophical issues through logic, similar experiences that result from frustration or despair of philosophy, which results in discrediting philosophy and announcing the end of philosophy, as well as inclining to practical ethics and mysticism and returning to the Bible based on some thinkers’ views). After listing the various experiences, Gilson reduced them all to one experience, indicating that any attempt to solve philosophical problems through non-philosophy is doomed to failure because the final explanation of the history of philosophy must be made by philosophy itself.

    Keywords: Comparative Philosophy, Philosophical Families, Gilson, Philosophical Experiences, Similar ‎Philosophical Perspectives
  • Gholamhossein Khedri * Pages 149-162

    This study compares the views of Walter Stace and Molla Sadra on the meaningfulness of life. Stace believes that the beginning of the problem of the meaning of life occurred when the scholars of the 17th century onward turned away from something called ultimate causes. The destruction of the world’s purposefulness and the telescoping of its phenomena after Galileo is a key event in the history and culture of the West to end the supremacy of religion in Western culture. The removal of the final cause in the history of Western thought has caused changes in scientific and philosophical debates, and this issue, in turn, caused a change in the attitude of man to the discussion of God as a creator and eternal power. As a result, the main issue of man, that is, the discussion about the meaning of life changed accordingly. This has become the main reason for the marginalization of God's divinity and the replacement of human powers, the final result of which has been the dominance of nihilistic approaches. After that, the conquest of secularization and anti-religion challenged the issue of the meaning of life of the new man, and after that, man sees God not as the source of meaning, but as an obstacle to the way of life.Therefore, he relies on his awareness and will and thinks of himself as the creator of the meaning of life. For this reason, the discussion of discovering and searching for the meaning of life has been changed in the past and replaced by meaning-creating approaches and talk of falsifying meaning. The issue of whether man is the builder and creator of the meaning of his life or acquires it from an external factor has become a big challenge for modern mankind. The modern man, due to various reasons such as scientific and philosophical advances, the weakness of religious authorities (Jewish and Christian) in responding to his intellectual and practical needs, the inappropriate behavior of the church towards people of thought and the growing growth of capitalism and consumerism, has suffered a crisis of servitude and unbridled freedom. Absurdity and meaninglessness followed by sadness, anxiety, and despair in individual life, on the one hand, and insecurity and injustice in social and global life, on the other hand, have been the inevitable consequences of self-centered servitude and libertarianism. In the meantime, what is neglected is the essential and natural structure of humans. The new man denied his nature (Fetrat) in order to achieve the freedom of self-foundation in thought and action by turning his back on his tradition.Molla Sadra, an accomplished philosopher and the founder of the philosophical system of transcendental wisdom, believes that life in itself does not have intrinsic value, and worldly life is merely a place to reach human perfection and happiness, which is nearness and annihilation in God. As a result, it has no intrinsic usefulness except in terms of the position of being connected and close to God, through which the possibility of transformation and evolution becomes possible. In his opinion, the meaning of life is completely tied to its purpose, and this purpose is objective and real and not fake or subjective at all. Proximity and annihilation in the name of God are considered the ultimate goal in evolutionary and revolutionary processes by passing through the four journeys from man to God.In his opinion, life has a deep interior in addition to its outer shell, which is considered the goal and perfection of human life based on its philosophical rules and foundations such as essential movement, rational and rational unity, and the reference and return of the universe to the essence of the true meaning of life in the three concepts of purpose, value, and function, and to achieve celibacy in its various types without limits. From his point of view, life and living have degrees of Tashkik. In this regard, Molla Sadra speaks of a good life with the words of revelation and finds it in an existential relationship with human knowledge in such a way that the more certainty and development of man is, the more his life will be. According to its strength and stability, it becomes more meaningful. In his opinion, man is the highest of creations, and his creation is not empty and aimless, and human nature (Fetrat) is deeply and intrinsically tied to God-seeking, and materialism and skepticism have no way in his philosophical system. Empirical science is also a product of man's distance from his original nature, lack of capacity, and stopping at the lowest levels of human reason.

    Keywords: Stace, Molla Sadra, Meaninglessness of Life, Purpose, Modern Science, Modern Human