مجله تاریخ علم
سال بیستم شماره 1 (پیاپی 32، بهار و تابستان 1401)

Dominant narratives in historiography, policy, and administration of Iranian higher education in recent two decades are talking about the linear historical evolution of universities from the First generation/ educational/ French/ Napoleonic model of higher education to Second generation/research/ German/ Humboldtian model and finally third generation/ entrepreneurial/ American/ startup-oriented model in the world and accordingly in contemporary Iran. However, a literature review of Persian resources shows that except for some sporadic abstract generalities, there aren’t any considerable content about first-generation university i.e. Napoleonic/French/ educational model and its historical conformity with the First French generation of higher education institutes in Iran i.e DarolFonoun; although, that is the main platform of Iranian university upon which second and third models have been built. Trying to relieve this fault in the intellectual and strategic research literature, this paper in the first step introduces the idea of Polytechnique as the First French generation of universities in the context of Napoleon's revolutionary state, technocracy as his government's discourse, and Henri de Saint-Simon and Auguste Comte's "System of Positive Polity". In the second step establishing the Iranian Polytechnique i.e Dār al-Funūn is being studied in the context of Nāṣir al-Dīn Shāh’s reform (Tanẓīmāt) era towards the modernization of governance. Finally, some implications of the Polytechnique-laden foundation of Iranian higher education are noticed for further studies and policy research.

In the Classical Islamic age, the star catalogues are highly influenced by Ptolemy's work. Nevertheless, Arab scholars were active in making amendments to Almagest’s values. Studying these catalogues in their context related to Arabic astronomical traditions will shed some light on the historical evolution of the subject. This paper focuses on the star catalogues in hayʾa tradition, specifically Muntaha al-ʾidrāk fī taqāsīm al-ʾaflāk (The Utmost Attainment on the Divisions of the Orbs), by ʿAbd al-Jabbār al-Kharaqī (1084-1158 A.D.), which presents a relatively detailed star catalogue. We introduce this catalogue, identify its sources, and discuss its distinctive features.

This article deals with the social and political effects of the Dar al-Funun school in Iran during the Qajar period. Most of the research and analyses that have been done about the Dar al-Funun school have dealt with how this school was formed. But this article deals with the social and political consequences of Dar al-Funun school in Iran. The period under investigation is the Qajar period (especially the Naseri period (1226-1247). The method of data collection in this research is the documentary method and the analysis method is the historical analysis method. This article, by examining historical documents, shows that the Dar al-Funun school had three basic consequences on Iran’s political and social system: 1- Dar al-Funun school changed the way of assigning political roles in the Qajar government. Before the establishment of Dar al-Funun, political roles were delegated based on kinship and family affiliations, but with the establishment of Dar al-Funun, the condition for acquiring government positions was to study at Dar al-Funun and acquire the competencies and skills necessary for government jobs. 2- The graduates of Dar al-Funun school provided the expert forces needed by the Qajar government and played an important role in the establishment of some new political and social institutions in Iran. Also, Dar al-Funun graduates succeeded in creating new technologies and using them in the Qajar government. 3- The teaching of Dar al-Funun curriculum spread new knowledge and concepts in the Qajar government and Iranian society. The spread of this new knowledge and concepts changed common beliefs and attitudes towards nature, society, and politics. The educational activities of Dar al-Funun school have had deep and lasting political and social effects. The achievements of this school in the development and expansion of new sciences and techniques provided objective and subjective grounds for some social and political developments in the Iranian government and society. The historical review of the consequences of Dar al-Funun school shows that any scientific and educational policy can bring certain social and political consequences.

In despite of the fact that the antiquity of Persian painting goes back to the prior 13th century, only at this time a new visual structure emerged on the illustrated sheets of the Persian manuscripts. Based on earlier attempts and achievements, the 13th century-Persian artists laid the foundation of a new style in painting that was equivalent to international artistic standards and continued until the 16th century. One of the achievements of this new style was raising the visual restrictions on displaying the 3rd dimension on two-dimensional sheets. Achieving this, the artists could represent the 3rd dimension; however, the result of these efforts was only a scattered representation. Therefore, in this style of painting, displaying the three-dimensional objects could not lead to creating an organized three-dimensional space; therefore, scenes continued to have a linear perspective. Since the rules of representation in paintings relied on the principles of Optics and, due to the fact that the Muslim optical scientists (e.g., Avicenna, Ibn al-Haytham, etc.) detailed the processes of vision and the visual perceptions, now answering this question is important: Why did al-manāẓir not lead to the linear perspective in Persian paintings of the 13th to 15th century? Detaching myself from the unconvincing answers that have been so far provided for this question, and based on the features of Optics and Persian paintings, I used a different approach for answering this question. The two theoretical bases of this article are the principle of "clear vision" and avoidance of "visual error" in Optics, as well as the immutability of the visual culture in Islamic Iranian civilization. This theoretical framework enabled me to probe the rules of Optics, the structures of Persian paintings, and the role of the social classes who were influential in the production process of paintings. The analysis shed light on the following reasons for the immaturity of the perspective rules in Persian painting:- The status of Optics and the other optical discourses in the advancement of Islamic science at that period; - The superiority of Optics over painting in cultural circles; - The artists' inability to communicate/translate their practical experience into detailed, theoretical teachings; and, - The role of the upper classes in the maintenance of artistic styles.

The question of people's physical and spiritual diversity has an ancient history and can be traced back to the ancient world. This question has also been discussed in the medical and geographical-historical books of the Islamic world, and the natural-geographical factors of the diversity of houses/soils, water/waters, and airs, and the distance and proximity of the sun and the angle of its radiation have been considered to be influential in the moral and character traits of people and the cause of diversity. They are counted among the people, and the air is the most special, which is mentioned in medical books in the discussion of the "necessary element" of maintaining health. After short research of these factors in some of the ancient and medieval written heritage of the Islamic world, this article examines the character and personality characteristics of the people of Baghdad, the scientific, cultural, and political capital of the Islamic world for long centuries (from the emergence to the fall) in relation to their land in some Its historical-geographical works cover centuries. Obviously, the thinkers and scientists of the Islamic world have explained the diversity of the people with the aforementioned natural-geographical factors, without being subject to geographical determinism.

Al-Bīrūnī was a prominent scientist of the eleventh century with a specific approach to natural philosophy. Unlike his other contemporary scientists and natural philosophers focusing on the a priori arguments, and demonstration through the cause, Al-Bīrūnī disliked such an approach. He had a critical view of this approach and tried to counter it, although it was not mainstream. In this paper, we will investigate some of his arguments through which his a posteriori approach will be reflected. Al-Bīrūnī was a prominent scientist of the eleventh century with a specific approach to natural philosophy. Unlike his other contemporary scientists and natural philosophers focusing on the a priori arguments, and demonstration through the cause, Al-Bīrūnī disliked such an approach. He had a critical view of this approach and tried to counter it, although it was not mainstream. In this paper, we will investigate some of his arguments through which his a posteriori approach will be reflected. Al-Bīrūnī was a prominent scientist of the eleventh century with a specific approach to natural philosophy. Unlike his other contemporary scientists and natural philosophers focusing on the a priori arguments, and demonstration through the cause, Al-Bīrūnī disliked such an approach. He had a critical view of this approach and tried to counter it, although it was not mainstream. In this paper, we will investigate some of his arguments through which his a posteriori approach will be reflected. Al-Bīrūnī was a prominent scientist of the eleventh century with a specific approach to natural philosophy. Unlike his other contemporary scientists and natural philosophers focusing on the a priori arguments, and demonstration through the cause, Al-Bīrūnī disliked such an approach. He had a critical view of this approach and tried to counter it, although it was not mainstream. In this paper, we will investigate some of his arguments through which his a posteriori approach will be reflected.

The subject of automatic fountains or fountains that change their shape without the intervention of an external agent at specific time intervals is one of the subjects mentioned in the books of Muslim scientists in the domain of Al-Hiyal. , (the approximate equivalent of mechanical engineering). The first examples of this type of fountain are given by Banū Mūsā ibn Shākir in the book al-Hiyal. Apparently these designs were independent of Greek heritage and the result of the genius and thought of Banū Mūsā ibn Shākir. After Banū Mūsā, al-Jazarī in the automatic fountains section of his book while criticizing the fountain designs of Bani-Musa provided new examples of this type of fountain. Despite the apparent difference between al-Jazarī's designs and the fountains designed by Banū Mūsā and al-Jazarī's emphasis on not using their methods in fountain design, it seems that he has been largely influenced by the ideas of by Banū Mūsā in this book, together with a brief description of automatic fountains from the two books mentioned, the extent of this effectiveness is examined.

The orbit of the stars and planets is considered a principle in ancient physics, according to which, after a long period of time, the celestial bodies return to their original position relative to each other. Because according to the perspective of ancient naturalists, the spherical worlds influence the formation of events in the material world; With the resumption of the astronomical conditions in relation to each other, similar events will happen in the world under the moon. This period of time is called Ayam al-Alam (times of the world), which is discussed more in the works of Abu Ma’shar Balkhi and Abu Reyhan Biruni. In this article, with the historical description of this point of view, the types of the cosmological cycle and its relationship with the science of astronomical rules are stated. In Islamic philosophy, the theory of the repetition of world events based on distance and blindness has been examined mainly in the treatises of Ikhwan al-Safa and the works of Suhrawardi and his commentators, such as Shahrezuri, and they have proposed theological uses for it, which include: A witness to the permanence of divine emanation; An explanation of the eternity of the universe and the non-eternity of the creatures of the material world; a description of the theory of resurrection and reincarnation; An explanation of how to achieve occult knowledge; A presupposition in the interpretation of some verses and hadiths, as they have adapted Ratgh and Fatgh to this discussion. In this article, by criticizing the repeatability of world events based on cosmic periods, it has been shown that the philosophical applications of this theory are incorrect.

Seyyed Jamaluddin Asadabadi's treatise, which was written in Naqd Nicharian in Hyderabad, Deccan, India, and was lithographed in 1298 AD, is one of the most important Persian treatises, which shows how Persian speakers encountered Darwin's name and theory. So far, no report of the first edition of this book has been seen among the researches. I have tried to claim in this note that I have obtained this version by giving evidence. Also, I have found a handwritten version of this treatise in Arabic language, which has differences with the translation of Muhammad Abdo, and a part of it is in Asadabadi's handwriting. I will publish all these reports in the form of a book to show that in addition to this treatise, similar treatises were also written in Red Nicherian in the subcontinent. In this short note, I intend to address this point.

Traditional Iranian medicine practitioners in the Most medical texts from the era of the Islamic civilization have emphasized the preventative and therapeutic effects of bathhouses (Hammam) on disease, illuminating the various mechanisms involved.. As a result, numerous studies have dealt with the role of the bathhouse in preserving public health in traditional Iranian medicine. The present study seeks to review and critique the essay "Bath, Its Preventive and Therapeutic Approach in Iranian Medicine" by Zahra Hossein Hashemi, published in the journal of Science History (volume 17. No. 1. Spring and summer of 2019). This research is an analytical and critical study. It draws upon library sources to review and evaluate the abovementioned essay from structural, substantive, and methodological perspectives. The essay is coherently written. The authors seek to introduce the views of traditional Iranian physicians about the effect of bathhouses on physical health based on preventative and therapeutic approaches. The article, however, contains some referencing and writing errors. It also fails to clarify its limits and bounds. Furthermore, some of the essay's substantive weaknesses include the following: failing to explain the traditional medical vocabulary, ambiguity surrounding the preventative and therapeutic effects of the bathhouse, insufficient scientific evidence to support the mentioned scientific arguments and justifications and inaccurate translation of the texts of the Iranian traditional medicine to Arabic. The findings of this study indicate that although the essay in question has introduced a novel subject to scholars of medical history by investigating the preventative and therapeutic effects of the bathhouse in Iranian traditional medicine, it suffers from numerous structural, substantive, and methodological shortcomings. Given the essential role of critique in scientific studies, the researchers who are interested in this field could consider the mentioned flaws to improve the studies on the history of medicine.