Water Productivity Journal
Volume:3 Issue: 1, Winter 2023

Water pricing is also helpful for regulating water use and ensuring efficiency of the irrigation system and its management. As per the constitution of India, water is a state subject. Constitution does not explicitly recognize the right to water as a basic human right. However, this right is recognized implicitly with the Supreme Court’s interpretations of the Article 21 of the Constitution, as right to life with dignity. Maharashtra is the second highest populated, third largest in area, second urbanized and most industrialized state in India. Maharashtra State occupies the western and central part of the country and has geographical area of 307.58 Lakh ha, which includes gross cropped area of 231.75 lakh ha. Maharashtra State is mainly covered by the six river basins and has 126 billion cubic meters of average annual renewable surface and groundwater resources. Integrated State Water Plan (ISWP) for all of the major river basins has been prepared for sustainable development and judicious use of State’s scarce water resources, both surface and groundwater. Maharashtra has 87 major, 297 medium and 3519 irrigation minor projects in the water sector of the State, creating the live storage capacity of 43.8 billion cubic meters (BCM). Maharashtra is a pioneer state in India to have Water Resources Regulatory Act (2005) and established Maharashtra Water Resources Regulatory Authority (MWRRA) to regulate water resource; facilitate and ensure judicious equitable and sustainable management; allocation and utilization of water resources as well as to fix the rates for use of water for all of the purposes and matter connected therewith and incidental thereto. MWRRA fixes the rates for use of water for agriculture, industries, domestic and other purposes in such a way that the water charges shall reflect the recovery of full cost of irrigation management, administration and maintenance of water resource project (O & M Cost). In this paper, an attempt is made to study the mechanism followed by MWRRA for determination of bulk water rates for agriculture, domestic and industrial users. Water resource has both characteristics of social good as well as economic good. Therefore, pure market mechanism fails to determine the water rates for irrigation. MWRRA has used the modified form of Contingent Valuation Method for determination of water rates for different uses and developed bulk water tariff system in the State of Maharashtra (India). MWRRA, after due consideration of comments and suggestion received from the various line departments, field officers, experts, non-government organizations, water users’ associations (WUAs), beneficiaries, etc., has finalized the bulk water tariff for various water users for the period 2018-20. There are the incentives for using drip irrigation and for WUAs and also for treating of municipal sewage water and its reuse. The authority has been using the tariff as a tool to enforce the measures towards prevention of pollution of the natural streams and water bodies. The MWRRA, through consultations with experts and stakeholders had evolved the criteria for sharing of estimated O & M cost of water resource project among the three main water use sectors as domestic (22%), industry (59%) and agriculture (19%). Transparency and consultations with the stakeholders for seeking their views and experiences was the integral part of the entire process of bulk water tariff system. In order to meet equity, efficiency and economic principles, bulk water rates are based on volumetric. For enhancing water use efficiency (WUE) in agriculture, 25 percent concessions in water rates are given for adoption of micro irrigation. For promoting the participatory irrigation water management, 25 percent concessions in water rates are given to WUAs. For promoting recycling and reuse of water, 25 percent concessions in water rates are given to users who reduce the freshwater consumption to 75 percent of entitlement by way of recycling. 25 Percent concessions in water rates are given for agro-based industries. In order to bring the discipline and responsibilities in the water sector, the authority has made several penal and ancillary provisions in the water tariff system. Such as, penalty at the rate of 10% per year for delayed payment; water used without signing the agreement, will be charged at 2 times the applicable rate, absence of meter or if the meter found to be non-working shall be levied at 1.5 times the applicable rate.

Kala Oya basin is the third largest basin in Sri Lanka. The basin receives an average annual rainfall of about 1192 mm and the mean annual potential evapotranspiration is about 1514 mm. Major part of the basin is within the dry zone and only 3% of the basin area is in the intermediate zone, where the river emanates in central mountains.
Drought is a common feature of the climate in the Kala Oya basin. Drought in this region had occurred mainly due to erratic behaviour of monsoon, especially due to long breaks in monsoon, high-intensity shorter duration rain etc. In this study, seasonal and annual rainfall departures have been calculated using 15 rainfall stations for the period of 1960 to 2018. Seasonal and annual rainfall departure analysis indicates a seasonal and annual rainfall deficiency during a drought year.
The analysis showed that the departure of annual rainfall follows the trend of seasonal rainfall indicating that the drought events in basin are largely governed by the monsoon seasonal rainfall. The average frequency of basin drought does not follow a clear frequency pattern. Then probability distribution analysis has been carried out considering long term (i.e., 59 years) records for 15 stations. The standardised precipitation index (SPI) represents a statistical z-score or the number of standard deviations (Following Gamma probability distribution transformation to normal distribution). SPI has been applied in basin to quantify annual and seasonal precipitation deficit anomalies on multiple time scale. The estimated values of SPI demarcate precipitation events over a specified period into surplus (heavy precipitation). The analysis revealed that the drought condition in the area is dominantly driven by the total rainfall during the period from September to December. Monthly departure values indicated that May, Jun, July, August, and September months are the dry months of basin. Whereas, 2nd inter monsoon and northeast monsoon heavy rainfall was received in October, November, December, January and February. The average wet days in the basin were about 136 days. The average SPI results confirmed that the drought condition in the basin was "nearly normal" (-0.99<SPI<0.99). The probability of obtaining "nearly normal” results for the fifteen rain gauge stations was 53%. Similarly, almost all rain gauging stations show a declining trend, which is an indication that drought may occur more frequently in the future. Severe drought occurred in the basin during the period of 2003-2004. The basin has a good overall probability of receiving a moderate quantity of rainfall, but its erratic distribution in time and space had played major role in advancement of drought hardship in Kala Oya basin. The basin had a sufficient number of wet days (on average about 136 days). The study provides information on the potential for future droughts due to climate change.
Studying the long-term drought will provide guidance for future water resources planning and management. Precipitation data analysis using SPI and the rainfall departure provides the adequate information on past droughts. More than 50% of the Kala Oya basin is used for paddy cultivation. Therefore, it is especially important to understand the drought in a basin-like Kala Oya and manage water sources to supply water for cultivation and other activities. This study provides a guide for water resource managers to plan cultivation quantitatively and in a timely manner. An analysis of 59 years of long-term data shows that the basin receives a moderate amount of average rainfall (near normal rainfall). As there is a greater tendency for drought, efforts should be made to promote the crop diversification rather than conventional paddy cultivation.

Climate change is a global phenomenon affecting agriculture unevenly across the world. The warmer temperatures create longer growing seasons and faster growth rates for plants, increasing the metabolic rate. Plants will consume more water to sustain and meet the evapotranspiration losses and the turgidity. In such prevailing conditions for efficient use of water, micro-irrigation is one of the best available alternative technologies. In India, use of plastic in agriculture started in the year 1992 and till date Government of India launched several schemes for financial assistance to farmers for micro-irrigation (MI). Since 2015, Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) has been formulated by the government to promote MI throughout country. India has more than 42 million ha MI potential area of which 13 million ha is only covered to date due to implementation challenges in the States.
In this context, present study was undertaken to evaluate the implementation mechanism of different States, based on the adoption rate of MI. The objective of the study is to identify the factors contributing to the adoption of MI system and to develop alternative up-scaling approach based on the successful implementation models. Data was collected from five state viz., Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Telanagana States based on the MI adoption rate. Primary and secondarywas collected through questionnaires from different stakeholders engaged in MI implementation in the selected five states. The binary logistic regression and Garrett ranking was used to analyse the data.
The results indicate that the farmers are very well aware of the benefits of MI but they need more technical guidance and training on the water scheduling, fertigation and maintenance. It was also realised from the results that lowest financial assistance i.e., subsidy is provided by Madhya Pradesh and highest by Telangana State. Stakeholder perceptions on implementation of MI showed that the efforts are needed to increase the subsidy rate, improve access to loans with low/free interest rate for MI and integration of MI to lift irrigation schemes. All the state are following online application system through e-portal of respective state and among them Gujarat Green Revolution Company (GGRC) portal from Gujarat found farmer friendly. It is observed that the GGRC model is best fit due to the easy application process, no capping limit on area, bank loan availability and renewable subsidy after seven years. Based on the findings, an alternative implementation method is suggested with mandatory training program to the farmers on irrigation and fertigation scheduling and providing insurance to MI in all of the states. A third party verification and geo-tagging of the fields also helps to monitor the performance and adoption of MI in the states.
The present research was conducted to understand the challenges and alternative options preferred by the stakeholders for re-looking in to implementation of the MI scheme. Increment in the subsidy percentage, trainings on the MI (water scheduling and fertigation) and its maintenance and providing low/interest free loans seems to be viable options in the implementation. The study recommends for preliminary field survey for approval of farmer application, tri-party agreement and third-party verification for effective implementation of the program. A mandatory training program on MI to the beneficiary can also be included into the implementation framework. As MI adoption is less in canal commands, there is a scope for MI in command areas and lift irrigation schemes. The suggested model or approach can show promising response from the beneficiaries as well as the implementing agencies. The model can be a cross learning to other developing countries to improve their implementation models and enhance the area under MI. Improvement in the adoption of MI can enhance the crop production and water productivity by combating the adverse impacts of water scarcity.

Sugarcane fields of south west of Iran have heavy soil texture, high temperatures, and hot dry wind in spring and summer. Hydro-flume gated pipes were used for irrigation. Furrow irrigation was used in sugarcane fields. Considering the lack of water in Iran, efforts to improve the irrigation efficiency and water productivity can be promising.
In the present study, the effect of drip lateral installation depths and emitter spacing on sugarcane crop water productivity and its yield was studied by installing laterals at 15, 20 and 30 cm depths from surface, while the emitters were spaced at 50, 60 and 75 cm. A factorial experiment in the form of randomly complete block design was carried out at the Sugarcane Research and Training Institute of Khuzestan in south-west of Iran. Study aimed to investigate the effect of subsurface drip irrigation on LAI (Leaf Area Index), yield and root distribution for sugarcane compared to the conventional irrigation. Two fields were investigated one field with subsurface drip irrigation and one field with conventional irrigation studied as control. Three measurement stations were selected in each field. The results were statistically analyzed. Number of plants, number of green leaves, leaf length and width over one meter were counted and measured six times at 91, 99, 105, 112, 119 and 128 days after harvesting, respectively. For comparison of root growth, one plant from each treatment was selected and thoroughly studied by root skeletal drilling.
Number of Leaf and leaf length and leaf width were not significantly different in both irrigations. The number of stems and leaf area index in subsurface drip irrigation had significant difference with irrigation in levels of 95 and 99 percent, respectively. The mean of leaf area index in subsurface drip irrigation and furrow irrigation were 4.1 and 2.7, respectively, and this index, in the subsurface drip irrigation was 34% higher than the average of furrow irrigation. The active depth of preservative roots was up to 120 and 143 cm vertically and horizontally in subsurface drip irrigation and up to 100 and 104 cm in furrow irrigation, respectively. These indicates that the roots in subsurface drip irrigation are about 17% and 27% deeper and wider than furrow irrigation, and also were finer and deeper than the furrow irrigation. In subsurface and furrow drip irrigation, about 96% and 98% of the vertical roots, respectively, were propagated at a depth of 60 cm. Sugarcane quantity specifications results showed there was significant difference between treatments in terms of drip emitter spacing and lateral installation depths and their interactions at 1percent probability level. Similar trends were also observed in case of quality traits of sugarcane. Investigating the water productivity index for sugarcane and sugar yield, it showed that treatments were significant in terms of the space between emitters at one percent probability level.
The maximum sugarcane yield was observed in the treatment with a space between emitters of 50, and 20 cm of installation depth. The highest Water Productivity for sugarcane and sugar production was 7.18 and 0.87 kg/m3 at space the emitters of 60 cm and the installation depth of application of 20 cm. Finally, according to results and considering the other conditions, with the space of 50 cm and 20 cm the installation depth of emitters was suggested.

The Proterozoic Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt (EGMB) fabric is an 1800km chain of broken and discontinuous hills that start from Jamankira in Odisha, taking a turn at Dhauli and runs up to the Cauvery River in Tamil Nadu. The northern EGMB is of length ≈400 km and emerges from Bhubaneswar. Northern EGB is dissimilar from the central and Southern EGB. The hills and the riverine system differ in their stratification lithology, minerals, rivers, forests, hot springs, and gigantic waterfalls. The NEGMB hills are remote, with hillocks, Jungles, poor communication, interstate conflicts, tribal population, and improper planning. The government has developed four hydropower units and irrigation infrastructures only and many are yet to be explored under limitations. The evolvement, topography, drainage system, geologic structures, rock characteristics, and granite gneisses metamorphism, charnockite, Khondalite series, and granites occurring in the EGB Hills in Odisha, from Bhubaneswar to the end of South Odisha. The setting of mountainous hills does not allow long rivers to penetrate making large and small lagoons, and having almost zero deltas for a stretch of 382km along the coastal front up to Vishakhapatnam. All are serpentine rivers emerging from the hills and joining Lagoon, and BoB lack of coastal prioritization of Hydropower. The shear zones beyond NEGB hills are having several east-west running faults and their fragments. The shear zones, cartoons, faults, and grabens are part of them. They regulated the climate, rainfall, fluvial, mineral, igneous, and tectonic activities of the NEGB area. The findings are the NEGB hills have been utilized to exploit four major Hydel power projects due to their positioning in upper reaches in the southern fringes of Malkanagiri lithology. However many Hydro-power units can grow at various falls in the mountainous reaches of the Koraput, Kalahandi, and Malkanagiri districts of Odisha. There is a large gap between the Rushikulya River and the Vansadhara River i.e. from Khordha to Vishakhapatnam. There are also small streams within the Nagavali and the Sarada joining BoB. The Sarada, the Varaha; the Tandava, the Eluru; are a few rivulets between the Eluru and the Godavari decanting to the Bay of Bengal. It is the naked truth that the use of Photo Voltaic to power generation is renewable energy. After 20-25 years, a huge quantity of panels shall be generated non-destructible as e-waste. The Paris agreement in SDG-7, as an affordable and clean energy expansion, cannot find a place for disposal. Geothermal and Hydrogen as the source of renewable energy shall be expensive and difficult to afford economically by underdeveloped countries. The only renewable source is hydroelectric power, which not only solve the energy crisis during the Anthropocene epoch but also save agriculture through irrigation. The statistics for the utilization of water resources in Odisha, employing the topography of NEGMB is an enlightening source. The major rivers originating from Baster, and Dharwar cartoon cannot join north of the Chilika coast to the left fringe of the Godavari Graben for a length of about 382km. These small rivers have no or little delta at their coastal reach with small serpentine rivers causing fast floods and depleting some brackish water lagoons like Chilika, Tampara, and Bendi lagoons. Further large numbers of waterfalls are yet to be exploited like Tirathgada, Chitrkota in Chhattisgarh, Hatipathar, Khasada, and Gandahati needs to be exploited either as tourist hotspots or large reservoir for multipurpose uses.

The basin of the Lower Kuban is experiencing an acute shortage of water resources during the growing season. Every third year is low water year. Water Intake in the complex layout of rice irrigation systems requires reliable forecasting and skilful management. The Report presents the results of research and developed methods for finding the optimal operating modes for the water-resource system of the Lower Kuban based on hydrodynamic solutions and the trade-offs theory that ensure the reliable operation of rice irrigation systems, considering the conflicting requirements of water users. The methodology is based on multi-criteria analysis and hydrodynamic modelling with application of the ‘Operating Structures’ module, which, according to a given hierarchy of priorities, allows fulfilling the water users’ requirements to discharges and water levels during determined time period (water intakes and outlets points on the river network). The developed computational technology allows to reach reasonable compromise decision in the process of negotiations between water users and water basin authorities. the results of calculating the simulation model of two alternative scenarios for 2013. Blue scenario - the choice is made in favor of CHIS, black is made in favor of PAIS. On the lower graph, you can see that blue (CHIS) is above black, and on the top black (PAIS) is above blue (red - requirements). The given results show how well MIKE 11 abides by the hierarchy of water users' requirements priorities. To convert the results obtained during the simulation in MIKE 11 into Excel format, and to calculate the deficits for water users and the drawdown for the Krasnodar reservoir, a calculation scheme was developed. To drawdown the Krasnodar reservoir no more than 40% due to the small private fleet, to increase the water supply to PAIS-1, PAIS-2 by slight decrease in the total deficit and deficit for CHIS-1, CHIS-2 water users. The results of this research show the Sc69 scenario, in which the drawdown of the Krasnodar reservoir is 40%, the average deficit is 29%, and the total deficit is 20%. Deficits for other water users are respectively: 0%, 0%, 9%, 0%, 94%, 96%. This compromise scenario is agreed with the majority of interested water users and approved by the Decision Maker. Developed are the principles of water management in the cascade of the Lower Kuban reservoirs considering the forecast of the hydrological situation and the requirements of water users (rice irrigation systems). A hydrodynamic computer model of the Lower Kuban was created based on the use of the “Operating Structures” module, which allows to consider the hierarchy of priority of irrigation systems requirements during the vegetative period. Different scenarios for hydrodynamic calculations with a possible hierarchy of priorities were formed, scenario calculations were made, and a decision matrix was formed. A multi-criteria analysis of the decision matrix was made; a formulated and demonstrated was the computational technology that supports the negotiation process when choosing the “optimal” compromise solution for the operating modes of the Lower Kuban Water Management System in the dry year (2013).