فصلنامه پژوهش در تاریخ
سال دوازدهم شماره 33 (پاییز و زمستان 1401)

From the end of the 18th century and then with the Ottoman Empire's entry into the Tanzimat era, reforms took place in the political, cultural, military, and economic spheres. As a result, many debates about these reforms emerged. Among the most controversial of these debates was the question of reforming or changing the alphabet, which the debate continues so far. The current study by examining the course of the alphabet change in Turkey from the end of the Ottoman times to the beginning of the Republic seeks to identify the critical and influential factors of the alphabet change in Turkey and reveal the historical process of this issue. According to this research, the Ottoman elites from the middle of the 19th century realized the need to change the alphabet and many debates occurred about the alphabet. With the abolition of the Ottoman Empire and the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, the issue of changing or reforming the alphabet has received more attention and was personally pursued by himself Ataturk, president of the newly established Republic of Turkey. And on 1 November 1928 with the passing of the “ Law on the Adoption and Implementation of the Turkish Alphabet “ the Alphabetic revolution took place.

At the end of the Umayyad rule, much opposition existed in the territory under their control in Iraq, Syria, and Iran. The main reason for this issue was tribal and racial prejudices, difficult living conditions, and payment of jizya and tribute. The harsh and strict policies of the Umayyad rulers, including Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, intensified widespread movements and opposition, such as the rebellion of Abdul Rahman ibn Ash'ath; therefore, some Umayyad caliphs and emirs made reforms to reduce differences and prevent the collapse of the caliphate. The reforms of Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz were successful at first, but his early death prevented the continuation of the reform process and the next caliph tried to remove his actions. At the end of the Umayyad rule, Yazid III and also the governor of  Khorasan, Nasr ibn Sayyar, attempted to control the rapid process of opposition by pursuing reforms, but none of these efforts prevented the collapse. The renewed energy of the Abbasids with the original early Islamic slogans was able to bring the people with them and destroy the Umayyad-Islamic royal government. The issue of this research is the reform measures of the caliphs and Umayyad rulers, especially their political and economic reforms. This research is organized in library style with a focus on Islamic historiographical sources. The authors claim that the Umayyad period's political actors considered it necessary to carry out large-scale reform measures, considering the economic and political conditions of the Islamic lands.

Abol hassan Foroughi, the son of Mirza Mohammad Hossein Khan Foroughi, the founder of " House of Teachers" " Dar-o Al-Moallemin-e Markazi", who is considered as one of the most prominent character of the contemporary history of Iran. Although there is a academic research on his director at "House of Teachers",  there is not any information about his thoughts and opinions. it's no exaggeration to say that his thoughts are unknown yet. It is said that his thoughts had effect on some of the members of national movement of Iran such as " Mehdi Bazargan" and "Yadollah Sahabi. But, before posing this question, it is better to analyze his thoughts and their evolution during his life in order to clarify the mentioned inquiry. This article responds not only to this inquiry what were his thoughts, but also will consider his thoughts as much as possible. The method of this research is based on description and reliance on historical sources and texts. The writer endeavors to demonstrate that Abol Hassan Foroughi in youth  and when wrote his Book which is called "Science and Freedom" , thought that "Science and Freedom" are two gemstone. To reach happiness we must resort them . His mind changed after World War 1 and its consequences and some years later and in pursuit of World War 2 and its consequences which spread especially in Iran. He made a real effort to research on religious studies and religion. He came to the result that "Science" as Ideal by European couldn't resolve their Problems, but "Modern Science" caused weopenry with which the European fought with each other. This event caused that his thoughts changed intensively and during his lately days had completely different standpoint and he considered "Religion" more important than Science and Freedom for our happiness.

Sheikh Mohammad Khiabani is one of the figures of contemporary Iranian history who came from Azerbaijan and this region has always been the origin of many reformist movements and freedom-loving figures. Khaibani entered into political struggles during the period when Iran had turned into a force field for foreigners and revolutions and movements in other parts of the world had an effect on the formation of his uprising. The protests of the people of Azerbaijan against the1919 agreement were led by him, which showed the importance of his position among the people and sparked the formation of the Azadistan movement. Khiabani, who wanted the constitution of Tabriz, believed that the constitution had gone astray; for this reason, he considered his uprising in line with constitutionalism, but some of his mistakes led to the bloody end of this uprising. The present study is a retrospective historical report that obtained its data from various sources in a library manner and intends to examine the stages of street life and provide a better understanding of his personality, constitutionalism, and the reasons for his uprising because This review is actually a study of an important part of Iran's history in a period full of ups and downs. There are different judgments about Khiabani and his uprising, but the findings of the research doubt that any separatism about him is false and the nature of this uprising is antia-authoritarian. It can be seen from his street speeches that he is seeking to implement the constitution and has democratic and anti-reactionary goals.

“Al-Jāhiliyya” evokes vivid images of idol worship, tribalist antagonisms, and violence commonly assumed to be emblematic of the Muslim representation of pre-Islamic Arabia as a “barbaric” anarchical society. Such associations, however, overlook manifold complexities of the era’s portrayal in classical Arabic literature, and this paper calls for a more nuanced reading of classical narratives of al-Jāhiliyya. Exploration of the word’s semantic shifts evidenced in Arabic lexicography and Qurʾānic exegesis between the third/ninth and seventh/ thirteenth centuries reveals that only after the fourth/tenth century did the now common Jāhiliyya stereotypes become virtually synonymous with pre-Islam. Via a survey of third/ninth century Arabic writings, this paper also explores how and why certain discourses articulated rather positive memories of pre-Islamic times.

In the spring of 1901 Mohammad Mirza Kashif Al-Saltaneh established the first tea garden in the village of Sheikhanvar in Lahijan. Regarding his activity for tea cultivation and basically the reason for trying to cultivate this product in Iran instead of relying on imports (due to the fact that this plant is alien and non-native) no comprehensive research has been done and most researchers focus more on expanding tea consumption in the society of Iran. Although Kashif al-Saltaneh did not succeed much in the development of tea cultivation. In this context, reasons are mentioned which are mostly unsubstantiated including people in Gilan who refused to cooperate with him and tried to prevent the development of tea cultivation, or the British government, which saw its interests in danger with tea cultivation in Iran prevented him through its agents.This article, which is the result of an Englishman's visit to the northern regions clearly negates these views. The date of his visit to Gilan was about 10 years after the construction of Iran's first tea garden. He left for this trip while he intended to visit the tea plantations in Georgia and was unaware of tea cultivation in Iran. In his writing, he has provided interesting information about the geographical features and climate of the northern provinces and the state of tea cultivation before the start of World War I in which one can understand some reasons for the lack of expansion of tea cultivation in this period.

In the present article Sancisi-Weerdenburg attempts to paint a picture of Xerxes’ mental character and his personality according to the Greek sources especially the Histories of Herodotus, Achaemenid inscriptions and depictions, and more importantly, critique the merits of every group of sources for writing the history of Achaemenids. Her main question is whether Xerxes’ portrait and character in Classical sources and modern research agree with reality or are rooted in helleno-centric bias that has been embodied in history books generation after generation without being historically criticized. Moreover, she concentrates on the correct evaluation of Achaemenid inscriptions and the fact that they are the results of oral and written literary traditions and not the personal independent qualities of kings. Her method is examining and criticizes Greek sources, Achaemenid inscriptions, and depictions to present a new perspective on the subject. In this regard, Sancisi-Weerdenburg finally concludes: firstly, many of the questions that scholars have raised, and naturally their answers are the results of  helleno-centric bias. Secondly, in examining the sources, we should take two elements into consideration before deducing about a person or an era: tradition and innovation. Thirdly, the personality of Xerxes more than reflecting a deep difference in his morals and religious policies compared to previous kings indicates the continuation of the same traditions and principles, particularly the traditions of Darius’s reign. Fourthly, issues like Xerxes’ irascible temper or his being a womanizer are not based on solid and repetitious evidence. Hence his period can even be considered the climax.