فصلنامه حرکت
پیاپی 38 (زمستان 1387)

This study was conducted classified factors influencing female assigningn in sport federations and the provincial associatons of Iran. The goal is to identify different psychological, personality, family and organizational features of successful female managers who could achieve high decision making positions (like management of federations and …) along with the strategies they employed. In the this way the researchers can propose different strategies to help other capable females to achieve high positions in sports management. To achieve the aims of the study, a questionnaire was developed. Cronbach alpha was uses to check its reliability and 86% reliability was found. To check its validity, it was examined by 17 professors majoring in sports management. The questionnaires were distributed to 30 female managers (who constituted the whole population of female managers) and 25 questionnairs were filled in. To analyze the data, descriptive and inferential statistics including Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, t-test and friedman test was used. The results showed that female managers had an upper intermediate level of accepting responsibility, ability in using management skills, psychological personality factors, the support of their family, political skills, familiaty with the modern technologies and an up-to date management information. However, the did not receive the suitable support of the organization. Also, most of these women performed their own responsibility while they. Maintainated their own women feature personality. Therefore it is suggested the sport organizations throughout the whole country bring some changes with the goal of supporting these women managers and fulfilling their needs.

The aim of this study was to standardize gross and fine movements and to determine its validity and reliability for 3-6 year-old children in Shiraz. The methodology of this study was descriptive – survey. 1524 boys and girls aged between 3 and 6 were selected through cluster-stratified sampling from kindergartens, health centers, cultural and athletic centers. The instrument of the study was Denver Developmental Screening test. In gross movement section, kick ball forward, jump up, throw ball overhand, broad jump, balance each foot (1 to 6 seconds), hops, heel-to-toe walk movements were considered. In fine section, tower of cubes (4, 6, 8), imitate vertical line, thumb wiggle, circle copy, draw a person (3 and 6 parts), † copy, pick the longest line,? copy / demonstration and? copy movements were considered.

The purpose of this study was to compare the bone mineral density (BMD) in lumbar spines and femoral bone between professional soccer players and non-athlete subjects. Fifteen professional soccer players (mean±SD age: 23.26±0.29 years, height: 174±1.07 cm, weight: 70.33±1.8 Kg, BMI: 23.1±0.4) and fourteen healthy inactive students (mean±SD age: 22 years, height: 173±1.2 cm, weight: 61.64±2.4 kg, BMI: 20.3±0.6) participated in this study. All soccer players and control group were free of any illnesses such as diabetes, hyperthyroidism, hyperparathyroidism, cardiovascular disease and did not take any medication. The activity levels and dietary habits of all subjects were noted. BMD was measured by Dual Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry (DEXA) at the femoral neck, femoral trochanter of both legs and lumber spines. The participants did not report any anti-seizure drugs, alcohol and cortone consumption and smoking cigarettes. Paired sample t-test, independent t-test and Pearson correlation were used to analyze the data. Bone mineral density in femoral bone and lumbar spines of soccer players were higher than those of non-athlete subjects (T=8.49, P=0.000), (T=7.19, P=0.000), (1311.5 and 1332.1 versus 941.3 and 1054.1 mg/cm2). Also, bone mineral density in lumbar spines of non-athlete subjects were significantly higher than their femoral bone (T=4, P=0.001), (1054.1 versus 941.3 mg/cm2). It seems that weight bearing is the most important factor to improve bone mineral density in lower limbs, while imposing stress on bone by muscle activity can play a role in improving BMD.

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of short-term vitamin E supplementation on performance markers and lipid peroxidation at rest and after a session of exhaustive exercise. Nineteen healthy males (mean age 21.13+1.2 years, weight 66.94+6.5 Kg, BMI 21.95+2.5 Kg/m2 and VO2max 37.91+4 mm/Kg/min) volunteered to participate in the study and were randomly divided into supplement (n=9) and placebo groups (n=10). Vitamin group took capsules containing 400 IU alpha tocopheryl acetate and placebo group 0.4 gr. amylum for 14 days. Blood samples were gathered in two phases before and after the supplementation, in each phase before and immediately after an exhaustive exercise on cycle ergometer (after 12 to 14 hours of fast). Serum malondialdehyde (MDA) was estimated by thiobarbituric acid (TBA) method. Data were analyzed by the repeated measure, least significant difference (LSD) and T student at P?0.05 level. Results showed a significant increase in maximal oxygen uptake and an insignificant increase in the time span to reach exhaustion, while these variables between the two groups were not significant. Also, one session of exhaustive exercise was associated with a significant increase in lipid peroxidation (MDA) in each group, but when using vitamin E supplementation, MDA decreased significantly at rest and after the exhaustive exercise. According to the findings, probably short-term vitamin E supplementation in addition to a decrease in lipid peroxidation develops the performance markers in this condition.

The purpose of this study was to survey the factors influencing job performance of staff experts of P.E. organization.120 staff experts were selected as the statistical sample. The study instrument consisted of two questionnaires. Staff expert's job performance questionnaire was filled in by the supervisors and the second questionnaire to measure independent variables was filled in by experts. The results showed that staff experts enjoyed high levels of job performance and job motivation. The result of the correlation coefficient indicated that there was a significant relationship between expert's job performance and job satisfaction, job motivation, career and educational variables. The relationship between variables and job performance revealed that the variable of compatibility of educational courses was the most important predictor of P.E. expert's job performance. According to these findings, P.E. organization should plan and develop educational courses based on staff expert's needs.

This study was conducted to investigate the effects of three various observational learning methods (all pre-practice, interspersed and combination of these two methods) on learning overhead volleyball service. 30 male students from Shahid Chamran University, all beginners in the intended skill, were divided randomly into three different groups. One group observed 10 overhead volleyball services through a videotape demonstrated by a volleyball expert and then started to practice the service. Another group observed the skill only once and then started to practice the skill. The subjects in this group observed one demonstration after each three attempts. The last group observed 5 demonstrations right before the attempt and 5 demonstrations alternately among attempts (one demonstration every three attempts) and last 15 attempts were performed after the last demonstration. The form and accuracy of subject's services both during an acquisition phase and short (5 minutes) and long (48 hours) retentions were assessed. The findings indicated that the subjects in the combination group who received skill through the combination method showed a longer retention of learning the form of the volleyball service. Based on the results, it is suggested that sport coaches use several demonstrations before practice and several more demonstrations in the early stages of practice for optimal learning of form of skill.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate physical education teacher's performance assessment system in order to remove some of the shortcomings. For this purpose, 310 P.E. teachers were selected by random cluster sampling, and their performance assessment forms were investigated. In order to study the reliability of assessment factors, assessment error, and the relationship among assessment factors and to compare differences among the teachers, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, one-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, Mann-Whitney U and Pearson Correlation tests at P?0.05 were used. The results indicated that the reliability of P.E. teachers’ assessment factors was 0.16 for two main factors (performance & process factors) which was very weak. The errors of performance assessment showed that the examiners made softness and leniency errors. There was a significant correlation between performance and process factors (r = 0.11, P?0.05), however, the correlation was not too sufficient to omit one of the factors. The correlation between final score of P.E. teacher's performance assessment and performance and process factors were 0.56 and 0.85 respectively, which were significant (P?0.01). This significance also indicates that each assessment factor evaluates the teachers properly. The correlation between the P.E. teacher's assessment scores, and level of encouragement and improvement were 0.036 and 0.028 respectively, which were not significant. The P.E. teachers also were not encouraged and improved for the scores they achieved. There was no significant difference in scores of performance assessment between male and female P.E. Teachers, and they were equally encouraged and improved. The difference in the scores of performance assessment between junior-high and high schools was significant, and junior-high school teachers received higher grades. However, there was no significant difference between these two groups in encouragement and improvement factors

Using ergogenic drugs may cause health problems for students. Providing knowledge about the side effects may prevent students from consuming them. The objective of this study was to determine the incidence of the doping and the consumers’ knowledge about the related side effects. About 6000 out of 55000 students with mean age of 16.6±1.3 years were selected. A reliable questionnaire (r=0.81) measured the knowledge and the consumption of the ergogenic drugs. Spearman correlation technique was used to analyze the data. Results showed that 12.3% of the studied population was involved with the consumption of ergogenic drugs: 56.26% not knowledgeable, 22.25% hardly knowledgeable and 0.85% sufficiently knowledgeable about the related side effects. Body builders were recognized as most and badminton players as fewest doping users. Consumption of the ergogenic drugs was related to the type of sport they performed, quality of their success in education and their parents’ education. It is highly recommended to educate students on doping side effects.

The aim of this study was to determine the effects of listening to music during progressive exercises on perceived exertion rate and performance as well as to evaluate the effects of fitness differences on the effectiveness of music. Twenty four healthy students (training group n=12, mean age =23.2±2.06 and untrained group n=12, mean age =22.96±2.31) voluntarily participated in this study. In the first session, participants were made familiar with the way of test performance and its evaluation instruments and took part in the Bruce Test while some were randomly selected to listen to music and some not to listen to music. In the second session, those selected to listen to music, took part in the test without listening to music and vice versa. The result of MANOVA revealed that the effects of music on RPE and time to exhaustion is significant (P<0.05). In addition, the survey of the interaction between music and fitness showed that music had a significant effect on RPE but it had no significant effect on the time to exhaustion. Paired-sample t test revealed that music had a significant effect on RPE in trained as well as untrained subjects. But the subtraction of t values showed that the effects of music on RPE were more significant in the untrained subjects. The results suggest that using the music in progressive exercises would be positively effective on performance and psychological view, regardless of the level of fitness.

The objective of the present study was to compare three low risk sub-maximal protocols to predict cardiovascular fitness ratio (CVFR) and to develop new predictor equations in sedentary men aged between 30 and 60. For this purpose, 150 sedentary men (with mean±SD age=45.1±10.15 years, height=172.3±7.62 cm, body weight=70.86±11.27 Kg and BMI=23.86±3.15 Kg/m2 respectively) were selected voluntarily and participated in this research. To predict CVFR values, the subjects performed three low risk sub-maximal exercise tests: the 3-minute Balk and two standard CV fitness tests (A and B tests). The values obtained from 3 selected exercise tests were compared with the 5-minute Balk protocol (criterion protocol). Methodological differences of the protocols were analyzed by Bland-Altman (1986) method. Multiple linear regressions were used to develop new CVFR predictor equations. The results implied that in 95% of the agreement domain, there was no considerable agreement between 3 selected protocols and criterion protocol (P<0.05), whereas the 3-minute Balk test with high overestimation (mean±SD difference=7.6±4.16, P<0.05) and the two standard CV fitness tests (A and B tests) with high underestimation (mean±SD difference= -12.59±4.9 and -10.64±4.2 respectively) estimated subject's relative CV fitness in comparison with the criterion protocol. This study demonstrated that although three selected protocol norms were commonly utilized to estimate CVFR in sedentary men, the new equations may present more ideal CVFR estimation in the subgroup. Obviously, it is necessary to conduct further studies.

Kephart, Delackato and Heb theories show the importance of physical activities in cognitive and mental growth. Physical activities prepare one's physical and mental systems to learn. It seems that these theories can be used to publish textbooks (Farsi) for students, considering educational principles and the physical activity status. This study aimed to describe and analyze editors’ attitudes towards physical education in Farsi textbooks of the first, second and third grades of primary schools. The statistical samples of the textbooks were “Bekhanim” and “Benevisim” for each grade including six textbooks, totally 132 subjects, and 860 pages. The books were surveyed word to word, line to line and picture to picture by the researcher-made check lists.? 2 non-parametric statistic was used to analyze the data. Results showed that editors had more positive attitudes towards physical activities in all three grades and the positive attitudes increased from the first to the third grade. Sport variables and their different kinds in third-grade books and movement pictures in the second- and third-grade books met 100% positive attitudes. The variables were given consideration in all books, but consistency and increase were not observed.

This study was designed in order to investigate the effects of contextual interference (CI) in acquisition, retention and transfer of motor skills. 40 student of Tehran University (average age of 22.4±2) were voluntarily selected and randomly arranged in two experimental groups of 1 and 2 to investigate the effects and to comparise two methods of blocked practice (with low CI) and random practice (with high CI). The subjects in each group participated in 9 session of 3 kinds of volleyball serves with 378 repetitions in the acquisition phase. In 3 sessions, 45 acquisition tests were administered during the practice phase and after 5consecutive days and 7days, they participated in 15 repetitions of delayed retention test and 15 transfer tests. T test, ANOVA and repeated measure were used to analyze data. The results of the two experimental groups showed that the contextual interference effect was significant when the random group performance declined in the acquisition phase contextual interference test increased in delayed retention and transfer phases when compared with the blocked group retention test and transfer tests. These findings supported the second idea of progression of memory and different views of motor preparation with the high CI of training.