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سال نهم شماره 22 (پاییز 1391)

Iran has seen the rise and demise of many rulers across its history which dates back thousands of years ago. There are presently numerous religious and royal sites still standing across the country to be proof of Iran’s glorious past. The demise of the Sassanid dynasty brought about a major political and religious change in Iran. Nevertheless، the Persian art remained in place and over the years after the Sassanid downfall manifested itself in construction of sites and structures. Therefore، a study of the architecture used in structures in early years of the advent of Islam in Iran is necessary to realize how Iranian artists transferred their knowledge at the turn of this important historical juncture. The eighth century in Iran’s history is called the age of scientific and cultural advancements and the era during which Persian art was revived. This is mainly due to the formation of various local statehoods in Iran and subsequently the emergence and development of different thoughts. It was during this period that important political hubs were created in Shiraz، Rey، Hamadan and Isfahan. It is understood from Islamic transcripts that there was a quarrel at the time between Ziar Dynasty and Buyid dynasty over capturing Isfahan. After a series of battles، Isfahan was eventually captured by the Buyid dynasty. It was then that the Buyid king Hassan Roknodolleh started serious efforts to develop the city. One of the remarkable sites that have been constructed in Isfahan during the Deilami era is Jurjir façade which is the only remaining part of Jurjir Jame Mosque of Isfahan. The façade of Jurjir Mosque dates back to the tenth century and its decorations were created at the time of its construction. This construction is a precious sample of brickwork and plasterwork of the era and is formed from three parts: frontage، front arch and doorway. Frontage of façade is divided into several parts by engaged columns. An example of such work was used in the Ashoor palace of Parthia period. This technique was popular in the Sassanid period and examples of it can be seen in the front of Kasra Palace (also known as Tagh-i Kasra) as well as in buildings and sites belonging to the eighth and ninth centuries. By dividing the wide surface of facade into decorated، extended frame، a boring monotony of the surface is modified and numerous spaces are created for creating different decorations. In addition to this، the construction of long engaged columns produces a considerable visual effect on deluding excessive heights. This is believed to help add to the magnificence of the structure. Also these engaged columns create light and shade in different hours of day and has considerable effect on cooling the surface of the structure. Jurjir façade is decorated with inscriptions of the name of Allah in Kufic part of which has been ruined over time. Brickwork in constructions of buildings and religious as well as royal sites during the Deylamite period is an integral part of construction. Undoubtedly، the decoration on the façade of Jorjier Mosque should be considered as one of the remarkable samples of brickwork during the Deylamite period. The decoration on the Mosque includes five types of geometry designs. The plaster molding as used in the decoration of Jurjir facade is also a significant work of art that was common during the Deylamite period. In Jurjir Mosque، plaster has been used as decoration in two frames. Firstly، as an independent element and secondly as a perfect element. In other words، plaster is dependently engraved in some parts and was the decorated element of façade and in some parts it was used as brickwork decoration. On the whole، eight types of decoration are seen on the Jurjir façade which are divided into two main groups of herbal and geometrical designs. One of the techniques used in Jurjir façade is to use brick and plaster work for decoration. Decoration of two eastern and western frames of façade was created from integration of brick and plaster as well as a combination of herbal painting and inscription. In other words، artistic shapes were used for decoration by bricks and then the decorations were polished by plaster. It is generally known that each Islamic city has had only one Jame Mosqu (Hilnberand، 44:2004) by the 10th century. Interestingly، Jurjir Mosque was constructed opposite of Kabir Jame Mosque. Based on transcripts obtained from eras after the advent of Islam، Jurjir Mosque was superior to Kabir Jame Mosque from the viewpoint of height، firmness and architectural style. Nevertheless، some researchers have expressed doubt over whether Jurjir Mosque had any specific religious application. There is، however، no question regarding the fact that the Mosque is ancient and that it was constructed during the Buyid dynasty. Studies show that brick working and plaster work techniques have been used skillfully in decoration of this structure and a study of applied paintings shows that patterns of most of these works date back to the Sassanid period. These artworks have been used in Islamic period with a new insight on that the Islamic insight has been manifested in its Iranian form which can be observed in painting lattice. For example، the designs of two sides of the façade which are stretched as a long tree from down to top، the reminder of engravings of two sides of big arch is Bostan Arch of Kermanshah. Also other geometrical designs and sometimes herbal designs are taken away from designs of Sassanid period artworks.

Safavid era is a very important period for Iranian weaving industry. Many kinds of luxury fabrics were produced in different cities during this era. In fact, the weaving of all types of fabrics were developed rapidly under patron of Safavid kings. Two important luxurious fabrics at the time were velvets and brocades. Brocade weaving was at its climax of prosperity during the Safavid era. The Safavid kings in Iran were considered to have close ties to the Gorkanid (Moghols) kings in India. This was mostly due to the cultural, political and social affinities between two dynasties at the time. It was therefore natural for artists to commute frequently between the two countries. This led to the development of common motifs and designs in artistic works, especially in woven products, of Iran and India. Fabrics have always been an important component of Indian and Persian civilizations. In the Gorkanid era (16th-17th centuries A.D.) a diverse range of fabrics were produced. Remains of the fabrics obtained in India show that they were generally produced with the finest quality and usually contained decorative motifs including flowers, animals and geometrical patterns.The present research was carried out through the historical and comparative methods. According to the library resources and pictures, the Indian brocade fabric designs were extracted and studied and then compared with those of Iranian artists to reveal the influence of Persian arts on Indian fabrics. Brocade is a silk golden fabric woven with supplementary weft yarn named “zari”, a golden (silver) core yarn, to produce golden designs and luxury fabric used by king and royal family. The weft yarns were used for fabric decoration. The main warp and weft threads of the fabric are silk yarns. Brocades were famous for the excellence of the weaving techniques and designs which were comprised of flowers, birds, animals and human figures. The most important specifications of Indian brocades can be classified as: content, techniques, aesthetics, designs, decorative elements and styles. Brocade designs are very diverse. A common design is called framed design that consists of small frames on the surface of the fabric. Each small frame can be filled with one common motif or different motifs. Motifs included human figures, animals, flowers, etc. These kinds of designs are very common in Iranian fabrics. Repeating decorative designs is another technique used in production of brocade fabrics. This was done by, for example, repeating one small motif throughout all the surface of the fabric. The common decorative elements are flowers, alone or with a vase. In Persian style designs of brocade, the flowers, trees and bushes are more common. Striped designs are also common in Indian and Persian brocades. Sometimes the strips are narrow and sometimes they are wide with designs of flowers drawn in them. These fabrics were used as wall hangings and curtains. Medallion design is one of the most important decorative elements specially in carpet weaving. A circle or oval or lozenge shape was made in the centre of the fabric and then a quarter of the medallion was repeated in four corners to impart a symmetrical sense to the fabric. Mihrab design has no pictures of human or animals and is used to produce prayer rugs in Iran. In this style, flowers with arabesque designs were used for brocades decoration. This style was very common in Safavid brocades. Calligraphy can be seen in Islamic arts. During Safavid period, artists used to decorate fabrics with writings. However, in some Indian brocades writings were used to produce fabrics. Motifs can be repeated regularly in small frames or used in different styles. Temples became a focal point for a group of artists and they ornamented their products in different ways in temples.The inspirations from religions, the style of life, and nature have influenced craftsmen in brocade weaving. The amounts of decorative motifs in brocade fabrics are very high and include flowers and trees, animals and birds, human figures and geometric designs. Iranian artists tended to use flowers such as poppies and roses and bushes as main subjects in their works. However, other elements were later added to those designs. The application of designs is totally with skill and attention. The repeated element is a single flower or sometimes a bunch of flowers in real or abstract forms. Birds on the trees or flying birds are seen in brocades, as well. Also, domestic or wild animals were weaved on the main field of the fabrics such as deer and tiger. Animals were always located in the background such as birds with trees or animals with human. Safavid weavers used human figures in their fabrics. Symmetric or asymmetric pictures were applied in fabric designs. Human can be seen in different perspectives. Sometimes people are in a party or in a jungle for hunting or appear as personifications of characters of an old story or epic poems such as Shahnameh. Geometrical designs are rare in brocade fabrics and usually are circle, dots, lines, zigzag and heart shapes.

Private buildings comprise an important category of buildings throughout Iran’s history including during the second Pahlavi era (1941-1975). In fact، the architecture of buildings in this era is worth studying because it has formed the basis of most of the current architecture of Iran’s buildings. The architecture of private buildings during the second Pahlavi era was influenced by various factors including the design and structure of the governmental and public buildings. There has been a certain degree of copying from the architecture of governmental buildings which was to some extent consistent with the climate conditions of Iran. This indeed helped press ahead the knowledge of architecture in the country. Accordingly، the stage was set for the development of a non-indigenous expertise which has live up to today. Therefore، it is important to study the roots of what eventually formed the architecture in Iran. This is the core objective of the present research. In fact، it tries to find out the reasons for the influence of the architecture of governmental and public buildings on the architecture of certain private buildings. The research is based on applied historical، causative، descriptive and analytical methods. Also، data collection is based on library research and interviews with experts. The study and findings reveal that there are four reasons for this influence: 1) Characteristics of the governmental and public buildings، 2) Characteristics and situation of the private section; 3) Intermediate factors، and 4) Marginal and background factors. The latter factor has been the most effective and the second factor has been the least effective in this regard. In other words، facilities and conditions such as “factors which lead communities toward a new culture and …”، “the new aesthetic view out of the modern technology and industry”، “promotion of new cultural viewpoints and …”; “financial recourses as well as their determinants of their amounts and …” and “the quality of the political organization of the country” are of special importance concerning the architecture influences. In addition، the influencing factors i. e. characteristics of the governmental and public buildings have been more effective than the influenced factors، i. e. characteristics and situation of the private section. Also the direct effect of the governmental and public buildings has been more serious than indirect effect of the intermediate factors. Moreover، studies show that the most effective indices in the framework of the related factors are as follows: building age، conformity with the aesthetic views of the wealthy class of the society، and their will for pattern-making، some private buildings which have been influenced by the public building، promotion of the new cultural approaches، etc. The other effective factors on the architecture of the private buildings under the influence of the public buildings in the second Pahlavi dynasty are: perfect dependency of the country’s economic and political organization، extreme tendency toward the West، promotion of the new cultural approaches، concentration of the activities in large cities specifically Tehran and the related migration، private buildings، none-expert people، and researches on architecture. It must be noted that there is a difference between the private-public buildings and the architecture of the private residential buildings.

Bisotun site as an outstanding universal value and a testimony to the ancient Persian civilization is inscribed on ICOMOS world heritage list (2006، No 1222). As wildlife refuge، Bisotun site is comprised of unique ecological values. The present article emphasizes on the role of landscape architecture in converging natural and cultural aspects in a cohesive restoration plan، providing the basis for reducing current ecological issues، promoting cultural identity and improving prosperity of the living condition of the impoverished people in the region. The present article has tried to use a descriptive-analytic method to present and codify the landscape restoration principles in natural-historical site of Bisotun. 1. Site: Bisotun historical site is located 30 kilometers northeast of Kermanshah in western Iran. Bisotun، which means “the place or stand of the God (s)”، has been of mythological value throughout Iran’s ancient history. This site is located along the ancient trade route linking the Iranian high plateau with Mesopotamia. The core zone (ca 1200 x 500m) covers the heart of the archaeological site. «This site has remained from the prehistoric times to the Median، Achaemenid، Sassanian، and Ilkhanid periods. The principal monument is the bas-relief and cuneiform inscription ordered by Darius I، the Great، in 521 BC، serving as a testimony to Persian civilization and one of the world’s most creditable historic evidences، that has been inscribed in world heritage ICOMOS list (2006. No 1222). In fact، the natural features of Bisotun region were an introduction to the formation of culture and human history in this region. At least 28 historical-artistic elements in this region have so far been inscribed by the Cultural Heritage Organization of Iran. Bistoun comprises various key characteristics which have already made it a unique place across Iran’s ancient history. They include various ecological and aesthetical features، several caves deep inside the mountain and also Gamas-Ab and Dinevar-Ab rivers، native vegetation and wildlife features which had motivated the building of bridges and hydro-plants for Sasanian kings. Furthermore، there are many fictions and folklores mingled with Bisotun. This cultural landscape had already provided a better meaning to the concept of «nature». Although this unique mountain lays in a historical silence، in fact this silence is replete with many unknown mysteries. 2. Current situation: Today، despite the ecological and cultural potentials، Bisotun faces many environmental problems and a large part of its natural resources is at the risk of destruction due to the excessive industrialization occurring in the region. Although this unique wildlife refuge is in danger، new factories are still built in its landscape boundaries and nature destruction has proved to have already had long lasting effects on local economy. The main question that the present research deals with is whether it would be possible to see the culture and nature of Bisotun in a dynamic interaction with each other and if it would be possible to study the aspects of historic restoration and natural regeneration in a cohesive approach of «Bisotun cultural landscape restoration». A descriptive-analytic method has been applied to present and codify the design principles in this site. The survey of the site has been carried out in the following two phases: a) Natural landscape study: In this phase، Bisotun’s protected area which comprises 120،000 acres of area embracing some parts of Bisotun meadow and Gamas-Ab River which are located near Bisotun historical site are studied. b) Historical landscape study: In this phase، the national and world defined boundaries of Bisotun historical site and the trail of ancient route that contains 3،700 acres of natural landscape are studied. Research results show that during the last 50 years، the natural-historical characteristics of Bistoun site have lost their coherence and unity. It is generally believed that when a cultural landscape loses its unity and is denied the care it deserves، it cannot preserve its magic and the spirit of place which originally belonged to it. Unfortunately، the construction of inter-city freeway through the ancient site، dumping industrial sewage in nearby rivers، leveling the lands and destroying the pastures are all examples of negligence to the language of the landscape in the region. In fact، all of these factors have influenced the glory and elegance of the landscape; the elegance which attracted Iranian kings and artists to Bisotun in the past.

The aim of this paper is to integrate processes of urban design and urban planning with ambition to increase urban environment qualities via comparing those differences of urban design tendencies and styles in strategic planning framework. Also this paper examines of urban design implementation in urban planning process by urban management system of Iran. Review and evaluation of urban planning process and assessment of development plans in past five decades in Iran confirms that these processes are not responding properly to the quality aspects of urban areas. The current situation stems from numerous reasons which could be found in rational nature or scheming process، survey، approval and implementation of plans. To confront these problems and in order to learn experiences and provide a new process which could encompass both city planning and design the traditions of city planning process has been studied. This approach would link both urban planning and design tendencies. In practice this approach can have positive outcomes at all levels of new strategic planning hierarchy and policy oriented urban design. In urban development plans، enhancing the urban environment qualities are significance challenge of planners and designers. Status quo of Iran show those plan have less been succeed in creating qualitative urban environment so in recent years experts and professional support qualitative approach to design and plan of urban environments in different scale including macro and micro scales plans. There is an essential need to analyze the application of urban design by management system in Iran critically، in terms of development plans process as distinct from other land use planning techniques. The research question intends to understand how urban design is utilized and operationalized in development plans process in Iran. The literature review published on urban design provides not only an acceptable model for further research [Wolff 1970، Shirvani 1981،Varkki 1977، Punter 1999،Carmona 1997] but also operational definitions of the components of this process. The study uncovered a wide of literature pertaining to urban design، the literature however، was in many respects confusing and contradictory in regards to the nature of implementing urban design by public officials. The literature review revealed many different approaches to define the tools for urban design. These tools yielding a wide variety of terminology and jargon used to describe implementation procedures. Methodology of this research is applied the qualitative method and especially content analysis technique to extract the essence of plans also their objective. This thesis makes use of this literature to examine this process on a recently completed development plans in Mashhad city in Iran. This thesis examines the tools of urban design utilized by planners in development plans. The thesis identifies the lack of agreement within academic writing defining the role، practice and function ofurban design as a source of confusion for the study of professional practice. Findings of paper identify that there are four important factors to enhance quality of urban environment including: cooperating of urban design in whole scale of planning، cooperating of different professions in development plans، cooperating of stakeholders، clients، and laypeople in whole process of planning، and adaptability in planning and change management. Result of this paper show that interaction between planning and designing process is necessary and also significance factor to guaranty success of planning and designing program in country. Results of this paper could apply in urban planning and designing framework as a guideline to harmony urban development plans، additionally، it could illustrate environments of planning system of country to recognize other challenges and problems in that also this study، thus confirms Varkki`s argument and advocates for increased attention of scholarly research to be focused on the procedure elements of urban design.

Landscape Architecture is a young discipline، yet it is still in the process of continuous evolution. Because of their special reciprocal relationship to practice، applied disciplines like landscape architecture draw many، if not most، academic research questions from problems and opportunities encountered by professionals in the field of practice. Landscape architecture is closely related to architecture in many aspects. This is particularly the case when considering that both deal with creation and management of space. Nevertheless، the domain of activity of in natural and man-made open spaces in relation to a broad variety of processes and flows in these environments، leads to some specific characteristics for landscape architecture and makes landscape architects to learn and apply a wide body of knowledge in the fields of human behavior، art، history، ecology and engineering. Recent decades have seen an unprecedented increase in the standards and complexity of disciplinary expertise and with that comes increasing pressure to formalize the ways in which we seek، create، and validate knowledge. Therefore، the main question about landscape architecture and its related body of knowledge is how to manage and balance this rather large body of knowledge. Accordingly، the present article tries to answer some other questions related to the question، including: “What is landscape architecture and its key characters? “What are the main abilities and skills which landscape architects must learn?” and “How it is possible to manage the body of knowledge and make it applicable in profession and teachable to students?” The present article starts with a review on concepts of «Landscape» and «landscape architecture» and official and academic definitions of landscape architecture and its domain. It later tries to remove obscurity about landscape architecture، and its related body of knowledge. It seems that the most essential part of landscape architects'' professional identity is considered to be the ability to solve design problems through creative management of the body of knowledge regarding each project. Four realms of knowledge are identified in applied research situations: tacit knowledge، the implicit taken-for-granted knowledge of practice; conceptual knowledge، which makes tacit knowledge explicit and codifies it as principles and protocols; systematic knowledge، which is also explicit and formally expressed، validated، and integrated into the core of the discipline; and operational knowledge، through which systematic knowledge and conceptual knowledge are translated into different realms of practice. Transformation of these forms of knowledge in landscape architecture happens through a process of learning and design. The next step of this research is a review on different design processes and introducing some new approaches in landscape architecture، regarding methods of managing the body of knowledge through systematic thinking، modeling and patterns. Architectural methods of work are older than landscape architectural design and usually what landscape architects do is very similar to architectural design. Nevertheless، as mentioned earlier، there is a need for landscape architects to have some special method for managing different fields of knowledge and using them in design. One of these different design methods was introduced by Mc Harg in 1969. His Analytical extraction of landscape into thematic layers was not just as a part of an analytical process but as a creative part of combining new layers back into a new landscape. It made changes in how landscape architects think about design. Turner summarizes the differences between methods of landscape architectural design with differences between SAD and PAKILDA. SAD or Survey-Analysis-Design method، dominated landscape design in the second half of the twentieth century، and it is a linear process of design consisting of a shallow analysis of data gathered in survey and sometimes this analysis is forgotten in the creative process of design. However، PAKILDA or Pattern-Assisted-Knowledge-Intensive-Landscape-Design-Approach applies the concept of pattern for managing the wide domain of landscape knowledge and uses different kinds of models in a cycling process of design. Pattern was used by Christopher Alexander in a “pattern language” for describing complex relations of concrete entities in different environments as a tool in the hand of architect، and it seems that Turner borrowed this concept for landscape architecture design process. One of the recent design methods، which is perfectly matched with Turner’s PAKILDA is Steinitz’s models method. This method consists of a six-level framework that organizes questions associated with a landscape design problem. Each has an associated modeling type. The framework can be used to integrate applicable knowledge and also to identify areas where contributions of theory are needed. Systematic thinking through the design process، using pattern and models is a framework applicable for landscape design and its education. Developing analytic and creative models for describing different steps of the design process is the main core of the frameworks which can enhance artistic aspects of design in landscape architecture.

Qazvin Boulevard، located in Iran’s northern city of Qazvin، was constructed by the Safavid king Shah Tahmasb. Some compare it in similarity with Chahar-Baq Boulevard in Isfahan and some others even consider it as the first boulevard in Iran’s urban spaces. A significant point about this boulevard is its spatial structure and function. In other words، there is currently an urgent need to study what constitutes the spaces and functions of this city structure – today called Sepah Boulevard. Also important is the materials used in construction of this boulevard as well as the size and composition of those materials. These are all questions that the present article tries to answer by referring to historical records. The article also tries to present an overview of the spatial structure of boulevards during the Safavid era. In conclusion، various facts are presented to explain what has made Qazvin Boulevard a key public place inside the city. Also، it is explained how different elements of Persian architecture like garden paths have been put together in this structure whose construction is a great deal based on a recreational approach. The current research further shows how Qazvin Boulevard paved the way for the construction of similar structures in other cities of Iran، specifically during the reign of Safavid king Shah Abbas، in what was later known as Khiyaban. This research mainly aims to highlight the basic elements and the components that shape this structure. A comparison is also made with similar spaces in Persian gardens which are believed to date back to at least 2000 years ago. Khiyaban، as the present research shows، was an urban and a public space during the Safavid ear for leisure activities. Its physical elements such as the positioning of two lines of trees on both sides and also the plan of this space shows that Khiyabans were constructed for special purposes at the heart of the city of Qazvin during the Safavid era. One apparent purpose was to display the glory of the king and this was done by leading the Khiyaban to the palace of the king. In conclusion، the present article compares the physical and conceptual pattern of Qazvin Khiyaban with the similar spaces in Persian garden and in the Iranian cities before and after the Safavid era. It eventually becomes clear that the Qazvin Khiyaban has effectively laid the foundations for such spaces in Iranian cities. This is particularly the case when considering that the Khiayaban has used the physical and conceptual patterns in Persian gardens.