جستجوی مقالات مرتبط با کلیدواژه « نظریه ادبی » در نشریات گروه « ادبیات و زبان ها »

What is the relationship between democracy and literary theories? Some individuals have considered this relationship as cause and effect, they have said that the relationship between the two is direct; Cause and effect in the sense that one (democracy) is the cause of another (criticism/literary theory) and direct as there is no intermediary/variable between them. But it seems that the relationship between these two is more complicated than it appears primarily, because not only the relationship between literary theory and democracy is complex and multifaceted, but mediators such as minorities also play a role in it. Democracy as a political system has a long history. Despite this fact and its continuous evolution throughout history, many of its issues still remain unsolved and no definitive solution has been found. One of these issues is "minorities". The ideal of democracy is the management of society by all people, but the existence of minorities - who usually do not participate in society due to oppression - has made the realization of this ideal far from reach and difficult. Solving this difficult issue has been the concern of many theorists, especially democracy theorists. Establishing laws to protect minorities and so on has been one of these solutions. Literary theories are also one of these solutions to solve the problem of minorities. Literary theories - each of which deals with one or more groups of minorities such as women, immigrants, natives, etc. - attempt to free the minorities from the subjugation of others and provide the basis for their participation in the society. In this way, democracy will be exalted.

Constructivism is one of the important theories of the 20th century that was used in different fields; From anthropology, mythology and psychoanalysis to literary studies. In the literary researches carried out in the late fourteenth century of Iran, we gradually see its use on some of the ancient Persian texts.

This research is based on the library study method following the analysis of scientific-research articles published on this topic in the seventies and eighties and the pathology of the application of the theory of constructivism on ancient texts in them.

The review of the scientific-research articles written in the mentioned time frame shows that the most important damage occurred is the lack of application of theory in many of the mentioned researches; In such a way that most of these articles - even if they have a correct understanding of the foundations and goals of the theory - can be presented in the same way by removing the title and propositions of the constructivist theory. Therefore, the theory has a redundant function in them and has been used only for the apparent validation of the research. Among the other obvious problems, we can mention things like "misunderstanding the basics of the theory", "giving originality to the theory and selecting the text in order to prove it" and "failure to obtain new results".

The use of new theories in the knowledge of ancient texts can create new capacities in the knowledge of texts, but neglecting the aforementioned damages has led to the mass production of articles that are mostly promotional and due to the lack of presenting new achievements, it also affects subsequent research. They haven"t had much.

The question of whether literary criticism and theory existed in Iran's literary past or not is a question that has arisen in recent decades with the spread of modern literary criticism in Iran. In response to this new question, researchers and literary critics have different orientations. These orientations go back to the motivations and thoughts of these researchers and critics. Some believe in the existence of criticism and literary theory in Iran's past, and some do not accept this. The reasons of the second group are not very convincing. Also, it cannot deal with the evidence and signs of the existence of criticism and literary theory in those days. Iran's literary past has not been without criticism and literary theory; But with the definition of literary criticism and theory that existed in those days, and that definition should not be exactly the same imported definition that is common today of literary criticism and theory. Literary criticism in its modern sense is: creative, theoretical and methodical reading of the text to understand its secondary meanings and implied meanings. It is also a meaning-making approach and a new understanding of the text that is provided by reading the text in a new frame of reference. The theories that make modern literary criticism and differentiate between its types are interdisciplinary theories (see. Culler, 2000: 14). These theories are taken from such sciences as linguistics, psychology, sociology, etc. Unfortunately, sometimes the argument about the presence or absence of modern literary criticism and theory in Iran's past has caused neglect in identifying the tradition of literary criticism in those days and analyzing its characteristics and aspects. This essay believes in the existence of criticism and literary theory in the past of Iran and analyzes the tradition of theorizing and criticism. Because it intends to examine its features and coordinates and introduce a type of theme-oriented literary theory in Iran's past and the literary criticism formed based on it. We have called this type "mystic literary theory and criticism" considering its intellectual foundation and scope.  

This article is a theoretical and developmental article. So this article is written with a descriptive-analytical method. Library sources are used in this article. First, the resources are valued and classified. Then, conclusions were drawn from the information received from them. 

So far, various models have been presented for the typology of literary theories. In our opinion, the model proposed by Raman Selden and Peter Widdowson is the most efficient model for the typology of literary theories. This model was designed with the influence of Roman Jacobsen's (1896-1982) language communication model:Theories addressed to the author: romantic-humanist theories.
Reader-oriented theories: Reader-oriented and
 phenomenological theories.
Theme-oriented theories: Marxist theories.
Text oriented theories: formalist theories and new criticism.
Theories focused on code: structuralist theories.
Koresh Safavi has exactly imitated this model and quoted it in his books, Familiarity with Linguistics in Persian Literature Studies (2019) and Familiarity with the Theory of Literary Criticism (2012).
     According to the ideas presented and the models proposed to identify the types of literary theories, mystical literary theory is considered a subject-oriented theory. Because it has the greatest tendency to the subject. In mystical literary theory, meaning and content are important. This great content and meanings are closely related to "religion". The origin of the keyword "religious poetry" in mystical literary theory is here. In the mentioned discourse, this trend towards meaning versus the trend towards the form or the trend towards the container instead of the container has found many reflections in various fields of philosophy, politics, sociology, psychology, etc That It should be checked. In the following, for example, some manifestations of this problem have been discussed only in the literary opinions of Sufis. In the mystical literary theory, "what to say" is original and more important than "how to say" and this has made the literary work, whether it is a story or a poem, in the most optimistic state, only a tool to fulfill this desire. In the mystical intellectual atmosphere, poetry and poetry have been ridiculed in at least two aspects and considered worthless:The mystics were dependent on religion, and in religion, a poet has not had a pleasant image. The Qur'an describes poets as those who lead astray; They wander in every valley and do not do what they say (Shuara/226-224). In some verses, the Prophet of Islam has been cleared of the slander of poetry and the Qur'an has been cleared of the slander of poetry, and it has been said that the dignity of the Prophet is higher than these.
Until the development of mystic poetry, according to social and economic requirements, poetry mainly belonged to praise poets and a means to praise kings and powerful people. The poet has been looking for wealth with these poems. Romantic topics and descriptions in these poems are also about earthly (worthless) loves.

D Accepting modern literary theory and criticism is necessary and correct. But not in such a way that the fascination and fascination with it leads to the idea of the ineffectiveness of our literary tradition of literary theory and criticism. In the literary past of Iran, there has been literary criticism with a special definition of literary criticism in those periods. Since literary criticism is basically a theoretical practice, then there has been a literary theory in the literary tradition. These theories, which are found in the poetic treatises of philosophers and literary critics, rhetorical books, historical books, biographies and poetry collections, can be classified Based on the models used in the classification of modern literary theories.
According to the models presented in this regard, the mystical literary theory is a theory focused on the subject and is formed on the basis of the ideas and opinions of the Sufis. In mystical literary theory, content and meaning are superior to structure and form. This problem is the center of gravity of mystical literary theory and has shown itself in various ways in the discourse of literary criticism of Sufism. In this theory, the superiority of content over form has led to the dislike of poetry as a common literary form in those days. Also, in rating poets, religious poets are superior to praise poets. When talking about the story, it is looked at as a shell whose credibility is based on the content and the brain that is placed in it.

Many philosophical and aesthetic concepts, despite their initial simplicity, are presented in the form of anonymous assertions in the field of criticism and literary theory. One of these concepts is critique of taste which, especially after the spread of academic criticism and the subsequent neglect of traditional methods of criticism, including the critique of taste, was looked down upon due to its inability to evaluate scientifically and methodically. Thereafter, it was bitterly criticized as a reliable touchstone and a trustworthy method of criticism and was, therefore, abandoned. In order to critically examine the negative and derogatory view toward critique of taste, in this article we have tried to analyze the differences between the critique of taste and academic criticism. By criticizing the opinions of followers and critics of both groups, it becomes evident that contrary to the popular opinion, critique of taste is not completely personal, subjective and devoid of criteria. On the other hand, scientific/objective criticism is found to be tainted with ideological, biased and intuitive outlooks. Findings suggest that despite the rejection and ridicule of critique of taste, firstly, many opponents of critique of taste are also caught up in it, and secondly, there are no precise criteria for distinguishing critique of taste from the so-called academic criticism. This is because the concept of taste is a complex historical concept and includes various features.

As a new form of the visual arts, conceptual art moves beyond the conventional aesthetics of art; it defies the previous aesthetic standards of art and, with its revolutionary and rebellious spirit, alienates itself from concepts such as beauty, form, and material. Such qualities lead to a question: in the absence of beauty, form, and material, what other factors can bind and define conceptual art in the domain of art? This article reveals that in want of conventional components of visual arts, conceptual art tends toward linguistic-narrative arts and recognizes its poeticality. Although poeticality in conceptual arts is different from the orthodox definition of poetry, it connects to mechanisms which create poeticality at a macro level: metaphor, defamiliarisation, and self-referentiality.

This article evaluates the possibility of theorising “poetry as a foundational pillar” – Amoud al-Shear – in accordance with Arabic rhetoric and literary criticism. This metaphorical name regards poetry as a pillar of literature and culture. Arabic scholars consider Amoud al-Shear as a theory which supposes poetry as a foundational pillar of language, literature, and culture. This study aims to answer the following questions: does Amoud al-Shear have the characteristics and functions of a literary theory? What are its intellectual and cultural origins? And what impact did it leave on the corpus of Arabic language and literature? In order to analyse the theorisation of Amoud al-Shear, the study employs six assessment criteria of theory and examines its credibility and efficiency in light of historical evidence. This study relates the theory of eloquence in the Persian language to the Amoud al-Shear theory.

This article investigates the possibility of theorising “Amud al-Shear” – or the pillar of poetry – as a literary and cultural theory. It examines this issue in light of the criteria and the six principles of theory. One can classify the contents of Islamic rhetoric and Arabic literary criticism in three major categories: rhetorical features of speech, rhetorical contemplations, and reference theories. Various literary theories, such as word-order theory (inimitability of the Quran) and “the pillar of poetry,” have been proposed in the history of Iranian and Islamic rhetoric. The question is whether these conceptualisations possess the characteristics of a theory. To answer this question, the author investigates the possibility of theorising “ Amud al-Shear” in light of the criteria of a theory. The “Amud al-Shear” concept is associated with the study of poetry and its various elements, including structure, meaning, and aesthetics.

The research is a case study which uses a speculative analytical method. Such a methodology is not based on mere information and citations but concentrates on a methodical contemplation and systematic development of the data provided by the corpora.

The theoretical framework of the research is in accordance with the author's elaboration and investigation of the criteria and the six principles of a theory. As such, there is no formulated or already known theory to be utilised in the article.

To answer the above-mentioned questions, this study employs the criteria for evaluating a theory. The evaluation, critique, or refutation of a theory is based on six criteria and is discussed as follows:4.1 Explanatory
A theory should provide a clear, precise, and transparent description of its subject. “Amud al-Shear” has brilliantly explained the state of Arabic poetry until the third century. This theory sought to protect Arabic poetry (eloquence) from the onslaught of numerous Arabic dialects which entered the Islamic world and aimed to create an understandable poetry that is eloquent, fluent, proportionate, harmonious, and rich in meaning for people all over the Islamic world, from Transoxiana to Egypt.
4.2 Dialectical Approach
A dialectical approach sets these theories apart from other rival theories. The idea of "the pillar of poetry" emerged from the conflict between ancient poets and neoclassicists in Arabic poetry during the third century A. H. (Abbasid era). At that time, new Muslim nations and tribes entered Arab civilisation, and new Arabic poetry moved towards modernisation. As a result, poets distanced themselves from the ancient Arabic discourse and the atmosphere of the desert.
4.3 Durability and Consistency
The conceptualisation of “Amud al-Shear” established a solid framework for Arabic literature such as morphology, grammar, rhetoric, literary criticism, and Arabic literary history, and has also organised and led the creation of poetry and the understanding of Arabic literature for centuries throughout the Islamic world. This concept has retained its effects on Arabic literature, even ten centuries after the death of its founder, Mazrouqi Isfahani.
4.4 The Scope of the Subject
The scope of the application and impact of "the pillar of poetry" does not cover modern and contemporary Arabic poetry, nor is there any mention of this theory in the history of world literature and literary criticism in relation to other languages and nations. However, the theory of eloquence in Persian literature has a close relationship with the concept of “Amud al-Shear,” and the roots of the theory of eloquence in Persian literature can be traced in Arabic rhetoric and literary criticism.
4.5 Prediction
The “Amud al-Shear” theory predicted that the Arabic language and literary taste would transform due to the linguistic and cultural interconnectedness of various Muslims who wrote poems in Arabic. The change in language and taste threatened the foundation of the system of thought, knowledge, and language. This prediction was relatively accurate.
4.6 Problem-solving
A theory should solve the problem of its subject, which in this case was chaos, fragmentation, and variation of literary tradition and the distortion of Arabic language. The concept of “Amud al-Shear” could safeguard the foundation of Arabic culture, namely poetry, which was called "Diwan al-Arab," for twelve centuries (until modern times) and provide a solution for slowing down the distortion and rapid changes in Arabic language and culture by returning to the original form of poetry, clarity, and elegance. Although it was an effective solution for a long time, it could not withstand modernisation.
4.7 Impartiality
A credible theory is the result of impartial observation and contemplation. However, “Amud al-Shear” is not impartial; it is a prescriptive theory. It was established to monitor, protect, and improve Arabic poetry. This theory prevented the entry of foreign vocabulary.
4.8 Origins of the Pillar of Poetry
First theorised in the fourth century in central Iran, the pillar of poetry became favoured in Iranian courts such as those in Isfahan, Rey, Nishabur, and Shiraz. About ten Iranian scholars played a significant role in the formation and popularity of the “Amud al-Shear” theory. The purpose of the theory, which was protecting the principles of Arabic poetry, also continued in Persian literature through Persian eloquence theory. Persian poets investigated all the principles of "the pillar of poetry” theory. For eleven centuries, Persian verse and prose – the language of the courts and the Persian standard language –protected a cultural and aesthetic system called “the old poetry system,” which rose to prominence by a Persian literary movement called "the return” in the 19th century. At the beginning of the 20th century, under the Reza Shah regime, the theory became anthologised and played a significant role in promoting cultural achievements and refining the Persian language by the first academics of Persian literature. The Persian language and literature education system still borrows its models and principles from the foundations of the theory of eloquence and the pillar of poetry.

The theory of "the pillar of poetry" is believed to have several characteristic features, some of which are new lines of thought, impartiality, and universality. However, this article seriously doubts the universality of this theory since it played no role in creating literary tendencies and the modernisation of Persian and Arabic civilisations. It has not opened up much new ground for literature and literary thought. However, it has been employed in preserving literary and cultural traditions. The rather impartial theory of “Amud al-Shear" was designed to prove the miraculous nature of the Quran. The theory also defended the classical Arabic and Persian poetic structures and prevented drastic changes in the language and taste of Arabic and Persian speakers. Furthermore, it played a significant role in preserving the Islamic tradition and the continuity of Arabic and Persian literatures. Although it has some limitations and has not contributed to creativity and innovation in literature, it has been successful in preserving the classical structures of Arabic and Persian literatures, and the fact that Arabic and Persian texts from centuries ago are still understandable today is a testament to its success.

Literary criticism and theory, due to its interdisciplinary approach, often encompasses literary, philosophical, social, and historical concepts. This makes understanding theories and applying them to literary texts complex and difficult. Against this background, Issa Amankhani's book "A New Look at Literary Theory" (1400) is an original and critical study that aims to explain and refine literary theories, sources, and also the application of these theories in literary texts with a new approach and in simple language. The main principle and premise of the book is that literary theories have emerged through "self-grounded authoritarianism" and the emergence of any "theory" is due to its "parallel work" and "opposition" with the theory. Therefore, the basic premise of the book is based on the emergence of "anti-authoritarian" theories, and based on this, all literary theories are divided into three approaches or three subgroups of author/subject-oriented theories. It divides the anti-author/subject theories and the anti-structural theories and classifies them into one of the three approaches mentioned above on the basis of the "dominant element" and "family resemblance" of each theory. However, the approach of the new foundation of the book, which, besides its value and originality, comes from the innovative mind of the writer, critic and inquisitor, suffers from frequent simplifications and reductionisms, limitations and finally "contradictions" in the course of writing. "Fundamental" that we will explain in detail the various aspects in the rest of the article. The present article, while reading and carefully examining the said book; It suggests and shows that the respected author, in the next editions, even if possible, points such as the book as a textbook, more flexibility, avoiding restrictions on categories, comprehensiveness and avoiding simplification and reduction. - Zeid's diligence.

Continental Philosophy, through dialogues with German Idealism and Romanticism, and in accordance with Subjectivism, Criticism, Traditionalism, Historicism, and Anti-authoritarianism, has influenced many literary theories, especially phenomenology and hermeneutics. Although continental and analytical philosophies have influenced other literary theories, the present article contends that in the conflict between the ‘continental’ and ‘analytical’ approaches, continental philosophy is characterized by ‘taste’ and ‘literary’ insights as well as uncertainty, multiplicity of methods, and even antagonism. The method exhibits radical differences with natural sciences (Positivism), Existentialism, and subject orientation, and it can be regarded as a much more suitable medium for the development and application of reader-response theories. Therefore, in the present article, while enumerating the common features of continental literature and philosophy, we will show that the relation between philosophy and literary theory, often formed through continental approaches and reader-centered theories, are visibly compatible with this approach. We will also discuss that in addition to the political and academic origins that played a role in the emergence of schools such as Constance, numerous drawbacks in Enlightenment philosophy, including the failure of rationality, the undesirable consequences of Capitalism, the gradual disappearance of Christian values, have profoundly influenced the formation of reader-response theories.

Some parts of Kourosh Safavi’s views in his works, especially in the book Âshnâyi bâ Nazariye Adabi, are related to the application of literary theories in literary criticism. Reviewing various theories and categorizing them based upon the six elements of Jacobson’s communication theory, he has emphasized their inefficiencies in literary criticism and accordingly, he has proposed an efficiency theory for criticism. Some of his most important criteria for the efficiency of a critical theory are: scientificity, comprehensivity (covering all components of Jacobson’s communication theory), applicability in criticism of various texts, etc. In this article, I have examined these issues to criticize the methodology of Kourosh Safavi’s views about the efficiency of literary theory in criticism. It can be said that the most important defect of his view is the reductionism in the perception of the application of theory. This reductionism has different aspects and consequences: selective perception and introduction of literary theories, ignoring the role of the critic in literary criticism, focusing on interpreting texts and ignoring other types of literary criticism, ignoring text selection, emphasis on patterns abstracted from literary theories and ignoring their other various aspects of them, assuming the homogeneity of theories and having close view about the combination of theories.

Human knowledge is swiftly moving towards independence and specialization. One of the requirements of independence is having a special, systematic, and creative language and discourse. Literary criticism, as specialized knowledge, due to this necessity, turns upon the creation of new terms. However, the dependence of literary works on language, emotions, and mentalities, the differences, and the unique linguistic and cultural capacities of each nation require researchers to develop terms appropriate to their native works in order to understand and evaluate their literary works comprehensively. In the present study, by explaining the necessity of terminology in criticism and the scientific principles of terminology, we have examined the terms suggested by Shafii Kodkani in literary criticism from various aspects. The results of the research show that since these terms have emerged by combining classic native knowledge and new literary ideas and are made based on the structural and aesthetic capacities of the Persian language, they have been established and used widely in the discourse of literary criticism and give us hope for the formation of native literary criticism.IntroductionThe Persian language, like other languages, has characteristics that many literary techniques and devices of art are based on them. Therefore, criteria related to literary criticism should be formed in accordance with the aesthetics and poetics of this language to evaluate its special capabilities.During more than fifty years of research, investigation and authoring of numerous works, and theorizing and creating terms in the field of literary criticism, Shafi'i Kadkani has contributed significantly to the growth of native literary criticism. Many of Shafi's terms in literary criticism, looking at the new principles of criticism and literary theory, are based on the special structure of the Persian language. The terms are essential for the Persian language and literature. They free the literary researchers and “leave a deep vortex of repetition, interference, superficiality, ignorance and sometimes theorizing, and sometimes a feeling of false exclusion and a generalization about one's own heritage” (Fotoohi, 2016, p. 12). Materials and MethodsIn this qualitative research, we have tried to investigate the critical terms in Shafi'i's works and his ideas in Persian literature with a descriptive-analytical method and a comparative approach. ResultsIn this research, by carefully studying the works of Shafifu and extracting terms of literary criticism, we examined terms considering two components: 1) scientific foundations, and 2) the rhetoric of making terms. In Shafi'i's works, in a general view, the terms are based on the foundations of new linguistics, especially the theories of formalism. Besides, they have been influenced by the scientific foundations of other branches of human sciences such as sociology, psychology, and analytical philosophy. In addition, factors such as secularizing or making concepts conventional, providing precise definitions and explanations of each term, modeling and systematizing them, classifying some concepts, avoiding ideological bias, and paying attention to the text have also strengthened the scientific aspects of these terms.Apart from the above technical fields, Shafi'i's poetic style and artistic taste and its combination with a scientific view have led to the construction of terms that are mostly based on similes and metaphors or synesthesia that help both beauty and a clearer understanding of the meaning of the term. Two factors are the greatest strengths of these terms: 1) practicality and modeling, and 2) updating of old literary knowledge based on scientific foundations and new approaches of criticism, and also practical adaptations of new theories of criticism, especially formalistic, structuralism and hermeneutic criticism.Shafi'i terms can be placed in three categories. The first category includes innovative terms that are made largely based on individual ideation, analysis, and reasoning. These terms rely on a coherent theoretical system and numerous experimental and practical examples and evidence. Second, adapted terms that are generally derived from the important contemporary currents of literary criticism especially formalism, structuralism, sociology of literature, hermeneutics, as well as classical Persian and Arabic literary criticism, including the opinions and ideas of people such as Gorjani and Jahiz and to some extent critics of Indian style.  The final category includes translated terms that are presented in his works.In the study of the construction of terms, it can be said that these terms are either a) taken from other fields of knowledge such as agriculture, folklore, and the fields of natural or technical  sciences and or they are old and familiar terms that have been reconstructed in a new meaning. ConclusionShafi'i is one of the few contemporary theorists who contributes to the localization of literary criticism by creating a terminology system based on scientific methods and placing them in the discourse of Persian literary criticism. His terms are placed in three categories of invented, redefined, or adapted and translated terms. While trying to revive the neglected theories of old criticism and rhetoric, they are largely based on new scientific methods, especially linguistics, philosophy, and sociology of literature. Also, in their construction, eloquence and rhetoric have been applied simultaneously and the use of literary techniques such as similes and metaphors have given them more clarity, simplicity, and comprehensibility.Among other issues, the precise definition of terms, the presentation of numerous evidence and modeling, the observance of impartiality, and a purely literary view and applied classifications have made such terms more and more popular among experts. The importance of these terms more than anything is that since they are based on the study of Persian language works and mastering them, they fully adapt to the structure of the Persian language. In addition, they have been planned according to accurate measurement and transparent criteria in this field, so by collecting these terms, we can hope for the formation of native academic literary criticism in Iran.

Hakim Nezami Ganjavi is one of the thinkers who has a specific style and idea for his artistic and poetic activities. And clearly expresses his beliefs and convictions in any field. In today's hustle and bustle of literary schools about the mission of poetry, the poet pays close attention to a literary perspective such as Nezami. And expresses the precise thoughts of a classical and ideological poet, as an intellectual and philosophical structure alongside the early and late literary schools, and shows the position of the content of the word and the mission of the orator in a particular period. Our task in this research is to extract and compile Hakim Ganjavi's view on the poet's mission, within the intellectual framework of Ganjavi and his temporal and spatial realm. Examining the direct and sometimes indirect allusions of the poet through his works throughout Khamseh and Divan, showed well that he has a great mission for the heavenly essence of poetry, which prevents the poet from absurdity, linguistic style and nonsense. . He considers the most important missions of the poet to be hope, happiness, religiosity, knowledge, honor of speech, spreading wisdom, cultivating religion and praising God, and explains the importance of each in his own style and manner.

The factors and conditions that influence the poet's heart and soul in the creating poetry are of great importance in the creation of it; generally, poets, scholars and critics pay attention to these factors, and they are scientifically followed by theorists and new philosophers. However, the question remains that what causes the poetic atmosphere and mood? Sometimes this ability is only assumed as something innate and accessible to certain people, and some believe that, everyone can become a poet with practice and experience just like any other skill. According to Hakim Nezami's explicit comments on poetic techniques and its conditions, it is very interesting and valuable to deduce and clarify Hakim Nezami's views in this respect. IT seems necessary to collect and compile his valuable views which are neglected due to being scattered among the poet's words in a form of a coherent view to guide the followers of correct speech; while helping them to better know him and his artistic techniques.The presence or absence of coherent literary theory in the literary history of the Orient, especially in the field of ​​Ancient Persian Literature, is one of the issues that has always been dealt with briefly and without any scientific support.  Is it Possible to imagine all the beauty and variety that is evident in Persian Literature without any theoretical support? The span and variety of the issue dimensions in Nezami Ganjavi's poems compels us to examine one of them, namely, the factors of poetry creation in the poet's literary theory, and try to answer the following question: Does he have clear comments on the factors of poetry creation? And if so, how can they be classified, and what relations do they have to modern and contemporary literary theories?

On the one hand, the researcher investigated Kolliyat of Hakim Nezami including poems, using historical analysis, and on the other hand, to clarify the origins and basis of literary theories, this technique was investigated from Plato to Rolan Barthes and the contemporary philosophers and other eminent theorists. Finally, the poet's views on the creation of poetry were deduce

It is true that the creator of an artistic work is the one who can understand the factors of the outside world and discovers its secrets better than the others. However, his relation with outside world do not necessarily always follow the rules of wisdom. Sometimes the relationship with the outside world stimulate his mind and makes it aware of great forces which he himself might not be familiar with..From the formalists' point of view, generally art is not the purpose or the frame of an artistic work but a process through which perception is reduced or even disconnected. As such, critical investigations are also to achieve such influences (Keri, se, 1381: 33)Therefore, it should be considered a place for wisdom, along with the trance and the unconsciousness, in poetry creation space. Although, from a poetic structure point of view, Nezami sometimes comes close to the ideas that conform to formalism (Ismaili, R. K. 1394), this never leads to ignoring the place of reason in the creation of poetry and it makes him a generally rational poet.Bares believes that the place of wisdom and its use in the creation of poetry and art has a definite boundary. He says: If the creator of a literary work wants to use wisdom from the beginning, not only does it fail to empower other internal forcesbut also cripples them. The artist must know that the time of using instinct is before any reference to wisdom or logic (Bars, 1968: 104).In Nezami's perspective, wisdom is the head of human soul and can pave the way for all the difficult ways, including the ambiguous path of poetry creation, and any speech that does not correspond to this old man's logic would be worthless. In the mind of the wise poet, wisdom and art have a close relationship with each other that can serve as an introduction or complement on and to each other. This correspondence is of course inevitable and just as art requires wisdom, wisdom also requires art and artistry (Nizami, 1388: 51).Phenomenologists insist that the poetic image is "something empty". It is not an image drawn on a canvas or on a sheet of paper, it is merely a virtual, metaphorical, or ironical expression that cannot be seen. The original content of the poem is neither images, nor expression of thought and language (Ahmadi, 1370: 59). This view is far from what Nezami thinks of the close relationship between poetry and wisdom. Nezami remains a rationalist poet while employing images from the world of senses and what is beyond. Sometimes he has arguments on affairs which are really rational. And if it is not possible, his arguments become poetic. It is a sort of poetry that follows wisdom.

Although the criticism and literary theorizing were not dominant in the past of Iranian and Oriental literature; no written works have been compiled in this respect and they have not received much attention in the way that was common in ancient Greece and the West, It does not mean that Iranian poets and intellectuals did not have any theories in the field of literature and literary criticism. The reason is that direct and indirect cues of many of these great characters in the field of criticism and theorizing represent deep intellectual challenges in this regard.He was unrivaled in direct expressing of his views on literary theorizing and poetical techniques if not unique. He provides a logical framework for his poems and thoughts, and seeks to apply this thought frame to his poems and reveal it to others. In the context of the factors that influence the creation of poetry and a poetic atmosphere and mood, he mentions noticeable factors which are classified under the following topics: Divine Grace, Solitude and Loneliness, Poetic Atmosphere and Mood, Poet's Inspiration, Angel, and Fairy Impression, the Introduction of Magic, the Developing and Propagandizing of Religion, Wisdom, Heart-centrism  the Buyer of Speech, the Name and Reputation of the Poet and the Spreading of Science; the poet's deep look was revealed in this field by referring to his poems. It seems that the views which have been raised in the field from the past to the present are summed up in his own. The author's intention is to extract and classify all of Nezami Ganjavi,s comments and to formulate them by explaining his poetic theories so that these prose gems would be presented in a form of a poetic chain.

 In Iran, as well as in Iraqi Kurdistan, the critique of literary texts using ‘literary theories’ has grown in recent years. The present study investigates published articles in ‘Literary Criticism’ and ‘Sulaimaniyah University’ journals. The research method in this article is criticizing the critiques. The aim was to answer two questions: Why has this kind of critique and theory taken up so much volume? How have researchers applied this theory? The volume of the articles includes 188 Persian and 76 Kurdish articles. After discarding 46 Persian and 29 Kurdish articles in terms of the basic structure, the scope was reduced to 142 Persian and 47 Kurdish articles. After analyzing the articles, it was found that the theory of structuralism was used in 47 Persian articles (33.9%) and 15 Kurdish articles (33.09%). The theory had the largest share in the articles compared to the type of critique and other theories. An attempt has been made to apply the critique and theory of structuralism in these articles, to express the differences and correspondence of the type of attitude in Kurdish and Persian articles. The findings of the research are that in the published articles of both journals, this theory is not fully understood and they have a general view that can be one of the reasons for the great application of this theory in published articles. Looking at how this theory is used, it can be said that Kurdish researchers have dealt with this theory more superficially and most of the time there is no analysis of the type of structure in the text. Also, unlike Persian articles, theories such as structuralist mythology, paleontology, structuralist psychology, Bakhtin conversation logic, do not exist in Kurdish articles at all. Another point in the published articles of the two journals is the refusal of researchers to study the sources in the original language or the sources of the first degree of constructivism, which is directly related to the type of application and analysis of texts.

The critique of literary texts using ‘literary theories’ has grown in recent years in Iran, as well as in Iraqi Kurdistan. This could be due to a kind of imitation of Europeans and a new definition of criticism, with the influence of Anglo-American cultural and social developments. Because in the West, since the beginning of the twentieth century, turning to literary theories has become very important and many books have been written about it. Every article or literary research needs theoretical support, and every researcher must use one or more literary critiques and theories to advance the work in order to maintain the scientific level of his / her research and its tastelessness. Literary Criticism Journal is one of the most popular journals in the field of academic literary criticism, which was launched in 2008 and soon became a base for many critics in the field of criticism and theory. Sulaimaniyah University Journal is one of the most prestigious academic journals. Therefore, the present study investigates published articles in ‘Literary Criticism’ and ‘Sulaimaniyah University’ journals.  

To achieve the purpose of the study, in addition to using Cochran's formula for the statistical analysis, metacriticism was used. In this regard different and close words and terms have been used, such as critiques of criticisms, reading of readings, etc. Metacriticism goes beyond literary criticism and criticizes ideas, rules, and methods of critiques together. In other words, it is a way of generally looking at criticism. Studying the critical discourse of Metacriticism can help to perpetuate the interlocution and dialogue between different critics.   Results 3.1.    Data Analysis to Investigate the Amount of Using the Structuralist Theory in The Two Journals To answer the first research question of the study, after analyzing the articles, it was found that the theory of structuralism was used in 47 Persian articles (33.9%) and 15 Kurdish articles (33.09%). The theory had the largest share in the articles compared to the type of critique and other theories. An attempt has been made to apply the critique and theory of structuralism in these articles, to express the differences and correspondence of the type of attitude in Kurdish and Persian articles. 3.2.   Data Analysis to Answer the Question of How to Apply the Structuralist Theory in The Two Journals With respect to the second research question of the present study, the authors studied the published articles based on different genres to find out the amount and the application of this theory. The following themes were observed in 142 Persian and 47 Kurdish articles. A: Classic poetry B: Contemporary poetry articles C: Articles that are about classical prose/fiction texts D: Articles that are written about contemporary or modern prose texts/stories E: Articles that are written about a film F: Articles that are about critical texts or critiques of criticism and theory G: Articles that are about different theories of structuralism with no specific textual analysis.  

 The findings of the present study showed that in the articles of both journals, this theory is not fully understood and they have a general view that can be one of the reasons for the great application of this theory in published articles. Considering how the structuralism theory is used, it can be said that Kurdish researchers have dealt with this theory more superficially and most of the time there is no analysis of the type of structure in the text. Also, unlike Persian articles, theories such as structuralist mythology, paleontology, structuralist psychology, Bakhtin conversation logic, do not exist in Kurdish articles at all. Another point in the published articles of the two journals is the refusal of researchers to study the sources in the original language or the sources of the first degree of constructivism, which is directly related to the type of application and analysis of texts.

From the early twentieth century In Europe and America and then whit a few decades delay in Iran, Is provided a New definition about Literary Criticism that was needed to following Interdisciplinary theory and in association with the writer in writing meaning. In Literary History of Islam and Iran there wasn’t this definition of criticism; but we don’t denial being literary criticism in that time and also denial signs of literary criticism in literal masterpieces like historical and rhetorical books, biographical notes and collection of poets. In other hand, literary criticism in Islamic and Iranian past culture, was dependent on Theoretical action. Because essentially literary criticism is a Theoretical practice and every idea and thought about universe, make Theoretical Texture that Gives directions to critic.In this essay according to the descriptive and analytical method for reach to knowledge about literary theory in historical aspect, Naghd-ol Sher by Qodamat- ibn Jafar(260- 337 AH.) Been investigated. Firs, is better that named Qodamat- ibn Jafar’s literary theory to Rhetorical criticism instead classicism or formalism. This approach is focused on Shortcomings of poetry. Also Text-based approach and single- meaning idea, have a prominent role in literary theory Qodamat’s literary theory. Finally, for Qodamat- ibn Jafar like Jahez, Abohelal Askari and Shams Qeys Razi, “How to say” is more important than “What to say”.

Different perspectives on literary criticism have not been in the right place because of lack of approach. Eventually, these perspectives have been classified with other collections.  The idea of fundamentalism came from religious movement of Protestantism. It formed different theories such as reader based critique, the subjective reader criticism, sociological literary criticism, and feminist criticism. In Iran, fundamentalism exists effectively and relies on the value of the literary work. In this cross-sectional study we want to view and critique fundamentalism in Europe. We discuss the perspectives of Arnold and Elliot in Europe and Ahmad Kasravi, Ehsan Tabari and Fatemhe Sayyah in Iran. The results of this study indicate that critical fundamentalism is a form of criticism. The methods of this critique are collapse or debunk of literary texts so that we can change them into political or religious ideological contents. This method can be shown in different genres.

The first words about fundamentalism have emerged in the field of religious thought. The term became popular among the religious tradition of the Church and the Protestant faith. Religious scholars have taken note of the new interpretations of the Bible's originality and the obvious truth of the Bible. Protestant fundamentalists adhered to specific theological foundations by faith in God and the eternity and the infallibility of the Bible text. Protestant fundamentalists adhered to specific theological foundations by faith in God and the eternity and the infallibility of the Bible text and they demanded a careful distinction of the prosperous from the non-prosperous and the chosen from non-chosen (Heywood, 2001). In the field of art, the teachings of church, with a value-and-originality approach to the perception of beauty, have been prevalent for centuries as the prevailing tradition in Western art and literature. In the same period, understanding beauty has been a difficult issue. Some in the category of deterministic system sought to lay the groundwork for overcoming the common beliefs of the church. The emphasis on binding through literary work and reading on the basis of the critiques provided is a long-running debate that continues to this day. Therefore, such a reading of literary works can be thought of as having a Greek origin, and in particular, Plato's view, that is influenced by understanding the literary work based on the valuable principles of the faithful or a particular approach. But have these relationships as a comprehensive or thought-provoking method in the field of literary criticism been able to explain the question of value and adherence to particular professional principles? How serious is the widespread presence of such a method in the field of literary criticism that emphasizes on moral, social, religious, political foundations? Will the discussion of a fundamental values critique be the study of different cultural systems for the development of particular network components?

In the present study the background of fundamentalism as a quasi-moralist approach has been studied in a descriptive-analytic way. This approach seeks to subvert or reduce the literary text to the ideological, religious, or political content that is critical to understanding literary value. In the second part of the paper, the reflection of fundamentalism in Iran is examined by excerpts from the works of three Iranian critics. The purpose of this study is to give a brief look at one of the literary criticisms that lacks classification and terminology and to examine the literary critics' approach to the fundamentalist approach and its system of construction in the West and to discover its reduced or expanded area in Iran. The assumption of this study is that the fundamentalist critique of art and literary work is in the instrumental position and it becomes an ideological use, in a way that, through direct reading, the intellectual world and even the social class of the artist (writer, poet) serves the meanings and values that the critic seeks in his interpretation.

He identified a purposeful critique during critiques of the accepted framework and coherent theory, the default of which is to construct rules and critique discourse and monopoly. In such circumstances, the critic sometimes seeks it out in all texts, regardless of the conditions of discourse formation resulting from the objective and subjective experiences of particular societies. Placing a coherent framework for criticism that includes fundamentalist aspects as with many definitions, creates methodological deficiencies. Fundamentalist criticism empowers the author to facilitate reading in order to read the text. This assumed continuity helps the reader overcome the nature and flow of the author's dominant voice over the world of text and transcend it credibly.

Fundamentalism in literary criticism, like some theories and discourses that have directly examined literature, has not treated literary works as a subject. This approach first appeared in the field of religion and then in the field of politics. Paying attention to the evaluation of literary work and its ideological infrastructures is one of the features that has been evident even in the study of literary works. In critique of ideology-based criticism, it seeks to explore the cultural fabrication of the existing capacities of the text, so the critic's concern goes beyond structure and language and into the concrete and discursive relationships of particular groups of people, religion, or ideology that shape the structure of power. Critics' attention to the discovery of power infrastructures goes beyond contemporary texts and to the discovery of power networks in ancient works. This method was also considered in radical styles. Although radical stylistics is about language, it reflects specific ideologies in language, so that radical stylists are interested in examining the reflection of ideological tendencies in language.

Criticism is a scientific tool, and every literary text, whether classical or contemporary, can be criticized from a modernist perspective. One of the literary genres that has undergone significant changes in recent years is the short story. A new form of this kind of narrative, which is getting shorter and shorter every day, is minimalism, which are called in Persian, "rationalism," "minimalism,"," and so on. The present study has attempted to study the short stories of FariborzLorestani, the contemporary writer of Kermanshah, and to exemplify them in the form of obscenity, limitation of time and place, low number of personalities and investigate the characteristics of minimalist style in them. A look at the storybooks revealed that many of the features and characteristics of the minimalist stories were apparent. In Lorestani stories using the smallest number of words to express the most meaning. His minimalist storytelling has given the reader a great deal of content in a few words. Most storytellers have no plot, and if there is a plot, it is not too complex and is expressed in the context of the word without the slightest exaggeration. Another feature of the minimalist story is the limitation of time and place, which, by examining the storybooks, can be concluded that most of them lack time and space and are vaguely expressed if they exist.

The ongoing debates on the colonial essence of some sciences, including English literature, are not confined to Iran. This issue has been a global concern, and many intellectuals have discussed it all over the world. While some of such discussions are propagandic and none-scientific, some others are systematic, reasonable, and illuminating and can be taken as theoretical background. These theories can be helpful in the substantiation or rejection of the possible misuses of science, literature, and English literature respectively, an amalgamation of which can lead to the formation of a solid theoretical background. In addition, these theories are able to explore the solutions of avoiding the shadow of ideology and colonization. First of all, by applying the existing theories, the present research aims at proving the ideological mission of English literature; then, by citing another set of theories, it tries to acknowledge the present-day anticolonial condition of this major and its departments in leading universities. In addition to the postcolonial approaches, this research proposes metanarrative insight as another required tactic that can act as a progressive step in the current changes of English literature. In the end, the present research avers that nowadays English literature, in its evolved form, is not only a neo-colonial apparatus but also is an anticolonial entity.

Today, one of the challenges of academic research in the field of language and literature is the frequency of using the theory in conducting fundamental research in the field of theoretical and practical critique. Adherents of such an approach, due to systemic and coherent interdisciplinary nature, consider the need for such recursive tools for literary research to be essential as synchronous as the literary researches of the Western world. And adherents of such an approach insist on stereotypes, artificial, superficiality, reductionism and westernization of these researches and according to the policy of negation of theorist, they believe it is necessary to return to the traditional methods of past critics or pioneers in this field.The author believes that at the intersection of the two aforesaid, a moderate route can be found, Therefore, this descriptive-analytical essay emphasizes that While avoiding any kind of extremism in the pursuit of the theory-based research, There are two great ways to retrieve literary texts: First is the combination of scientific and interdisciplinary methods to analysis and evaluation of literary texts And the second is a deep acquaintance with the principles of theorizing and philosophical approaches to produce indigenous theories compatible with the worldview prevailing on Persian literature.

Magical realism, very much like transplantation or localization, is still to be defined. In recent years, transplantation of literary theories in Iran has been a major concern and at the same time many writers and theoreticians have tried to produce, define and explicate magical realism. The book, Transplanting Magical Realism in Iran by Mohammad and Mohsen Hanif is a significant endeavor to redefine magical realism from the most recent critical perspectives opened up to it and at the same time it tries to use this trajectory to provide practical examples of transplantation of this literary theory in Iran. In this article, the writer intends to evaluate the strength of arguments in this book, and to see whether the writers have been successful in providing a practical specimen of literary transplantation or not.