نشریه قرآن پژوهی خاورشناسان (قرآن و مستشرقان)
سال هجدهم شماره 1 (پیاپی 34، بهار و تابستان 1402)

The study of the Quran and efforts to comprehend its teachings have gained significant momentum in Western societies, particularly in the United States. This article aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the main trends in Orientalist Quranic studies in the present era, with a specific emphasis on American scholars. Employing a descriptive-analytical method and a critical approach, it examines the nature of these scholars’ engagement with the Quran and Quranic matters. By tracing historical developments, five prominent trends are identified and analyzed: traditionalist, polemical-evangelical, skeptical, scientific-critical, and approach-oriented. The findings reveal that Quranic studies within this field have witnessed positive and progressive advancements, despite challenges such as political influence and extremist religious movements infiltrating academic circles. While the polemical-evangelical trend initially dominated Quranic studies in this area and the skeptical trend gained prominence in the late twentieth century, the prevailing trend today is the scientific-critical approach. This approach is characterized by a more empathetic perspective and a fair evaluation of the Quran

One of the contemporary intellectual currents is traditionalism (perennial philosophy), which has emerged in response to the progress of modernity in the contemporary world. “The Contemporary Interpretation of the Holy Quran (The Study Quran)”, is the work of one of the most prominent proponent of traditionalism, i.e. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, who, with full belief in the divine nature of the perennial philosophy, seeks to revive sacred knowledge and connect human knowledge to the transcendent world as a forgotten tradition in the modern world, without yielding to modernism. The chief editor of the book strives to present, for both Muslim and non-Muslim audiences, in line with the requirements of the contemporary world, the intellectual struggles of scholars in various fields of Islamic sciences over the past fourteen centuries, who have learned many truths through their commitment to the Quran and the Prophetic tradition and have left them as valuable heritage. As some foundational aspects and methodological approaches of “The Contemporary Interpretation of the Holy Quran (The Study Quran)”can lead to personal-speculation and superficial understanding of the concepts and arguments of the revealed verses, this paper aims to shed light on some foundational and methodological flaws of the third volume of “The Contemporary Interpretation of the Holy Quran (The Study Quran)” through a library-based and critical-analytical approach. Traditionalism (perennial philosophy), lack of transcendent unity among religions, disregard for the role of rational reasoning are the some fundamental and superficial flaws in interpreting Quran by Quran and inclination towards Sunni interpretations in the conflicts between Shia and Sunni, overlooking in quoting interpretive narrations, lack of using reliable and specialized sources, neglect of the application of narrations from the Ahl al-Bayt (the Prophet’s Household) in interpretation, uncertainty in selecting interpretive sources, limited use of influential sciences in interpretation, failure to empower the audience in recognizing correct statements, inappropriate referencing, unnecessary contents, limited and selective interpretation volume, lack of unity in interpretation, and ego-speculation are among the methodological flaws of the third volume of “The Contemporary Interpretation of the Holy Quran (The Study Quran)”.

“The Study Quran”, published in 2015 by Seyyed Hossein Nasr and his colleagues, is a significant work in the translation and interpretation of the Holy Quran in English language in western countries. The Persian translation of this work, titled “The Contemporary Interpretation of the Holy Quran / The Study Quran,” is being translated by Enshaallah Rahmati in Iran. In addition to the translation, the translator has made additions in the form of footnotes and endnotes to the original text and in the third volume, its position has been changed to endnotes at the end of each surah, which is worthy of research. It is clear that a technical analysis of these additions and an explanation of their strengths and weaknesses can provide an improved version of this significant work for future Editions of current volumes and other volumes. Therefore, this present research critically with descriptive – analytical method examines the additions made by the translator in “The Study Quran”. The final findings of the research indicate that while the translator’s additions have strengths such as resolving certain ambiguities and providing documentations, they also have weaknesses including: overlooking contemporary aspects, failure to correct some flaws in the original text, lack of necessary explanations for certain concepts or incomplete inclusion of some contents, reliance on unreliable and occasionally incorrect narrations, tendency towards subjective and personal interpretations and preferences of certain mystical figures, omission of sources for some documentation, dogmatic use of statements that are questionable in accuracy, and ultimately, the translator’s oversight of crucial aspects present in certain sources.

The Quran, as a divine source, contains strategic teachings in all aspects of life. Detractors have always raised doubts, based on prejudice, ignorance, and sometimes a lack of understanding of the verses, in order to silence its light. Recently, Dr. Soha has raised various doubts and objections, including the obstacles to women’s freedom, in a book entitled “Criticism of the Quran” consisting of 23 chapters. The negative and destructive outcomes of this work led the author to critically analyze Dr. Soha’s assumptions about the obstacles to women’s freedom in the Quran using a descriptive-analytical approach with a critical perspective and based on reliable linguistic, contextual, and interpretive sources. The research findings indicate that the raised doubts are based on sensory thoughts accompanied by fallacies, skepticism, defamation, false attributions, distorted proportions, and lack of solid arguments based on scientific and rational methods with the aim of challenging the eternity and authenticity of revelation and undermining its authority. It also became clear that the effort to institutionalize irreligiosity, hostility towards truth, falling into the trap of idealistic perspectives, and reviving humanistic and feminist ideologies in politics are evident. Therefore, this research has portrayed the weaknesses and groundlessness of the perspectives, thoughts, claims, and actions presented in the realm of obstacles to women’s freedom, demonstrating that Dr. Soha has raised such doubts due to the influence of Orientalists such as Gustave Le Bon, David Powers, Margot Badran, Ruth Roded, Owner Giladi, Barbara, Harald Motzki, etc., as well as due to the lack of interconnection between verses and having negative preconceptions and a lack of precise understanding of the reasons and purposes of the verses.

“The Quran, An Encyclopedia” commonly referred to as the Quran Encyclopedia, is a work compiled by Oliver Leaman, an American scholar. This encyclopedia covers a wide range of topics and discussions related to the Quran and its interpreters. Like other works of orientalists, this encyclopedia even has useful contents but presents doctrinal and jurisprudential doubts that require further examination. This paper with a descriptive-analytical approach explores three specific doubts: “The portrayal of women as Satanic according to the Quran,” “The preference of males over females in the Quran,” and “The allocation of heavenly blessings exclusively to men.” The research findings highlight the mistakes made by orientalists in their understanding of the status of women in the Quran, primarily due to their neglect of other Quranic verses and Islamic concepts. Contrary to their assertions, Islam does not view men as a superior gender. The Quran presents exemplary female figures such as Lady Maryam and Asiya, who serve as role models for both men and women. Furthermore, differences between men and women in certain rulings, despite the specific conditions and regulations outlined by Islam, are rooted in principles of justice. According to certain Quranic verses, both men and women who perform good deeds are equally entitled to heavenly blessings.

In today's world, similar to the time of the noble Prophet (P), some Orientalists, due to prejudice or ignorance, have accused the Prophet of employing violence and force in propagating the faith, either to undermine Islam or to foment Islamophobia. Examining and addressing these allegations is essential to demonstrate the true essence of Islam and its expansion. These allegations can be summarized in three axes: the establishment and propagation of Islam based on force, warfare and jihad, and the implementation of severe rulings. This article, adopting an intrinsic approach of Orientalists, explicates and critically analyzes the first axis (the accusation of violence and force in the expansion of Islam). This is accomplished through an inferential method and by appealing to the Quran to refute these allegations, drawing upon Quranic evidence from various commentaries. The findings and Quranic evidence indicate the following regarding the refutation of the misconception of the Prophet's violence in propagating Islam: 1. The compassionate character of the Prophet, manifested through gentleness, forgiveness, and harmonious interactions even with non-Muslims, has been the paramount factor in the propagation of Islam; 2. The Prophet's call was rooted in wisdom, eloquence, and good persuasion, containing elements of admonition, glad tidings, and a message of liberty. The Messenger of Mercy progressively implemented this content and approach in accordance with the audience and circumstances, starting with mercy and adapting to necessity, culminating in the final option of violence and combat against the obstinate, as a defensive measure to safeguard Islam and Muslims against the conspiracies of hostile adversaries. Therefore, even the final option is, within the holistic order of the world, an act of mercy for all, as it upholds order in society. Consequently, none of the axes of allegations of violence against the Prophet constitute instances of brutality. Contrary to Orientalist views, the expansion of Islam did not and does not necessitate or rely upon the sword, coercion, or compulsion

The life of Her Highness Khadīja (s) is among the subjects that some orientalists have dealt with. Individuals such as Fatemeh Marnisi in the book “Veiled Women and Elite of the Cloak,” Nabiya Abbott in the article “The Status of Women at the Dawn of Islam,” and Barbara Freyer Stowasser in the articles “Wives of the Prophet” and “Khadijah” in the Encyclopedia of the Quran in Leiden have discussed aspects of this prominent figure within their discussions on women in Islam. Relying on the Sunnī narrations, they point out the virtues of this figure and depict her as a person with profound thought and a strong supporter of the Prophet (s). Nonetheless, all foregoing authors have asserted that she was old when she married the Prophet (s), was a widow before marrying him, had some children from her previous marriages, and had a huge wealth as a result of her previous marriages. In line with depicting Khadīja (s) as a character supporting the Prophet (s), they weaken the prophetic status of the Prophet (s), and introduce him as a helpless person and an unsuccessful prophet had she not supported him. Despite their reference to numerous resources, these authors have made mistakes incongruent with historical facts. This is because of their reference to Sunnī resources and their incomplete exploration of historical works. This paper, with descriptive-analytical, aims at first presenting their points and then analyzing the sublime character of Khadīja (s) and proving that she had never got married before the Prophet (s) and was not old at the time of marrying him. She was the guardian of the children of her sister “Hāla,” and her huge wealth was not the heritage received from her previous husbands; rather, it was the outcome of the efforts and strength of this brilliant lady.

The Quran, as the most significant religious source for Muslims, has consistently been the focal point of attention, and from ancient times until now, numerous efforts have been made by Muslim and non-Muslim scholars to comprehend it. One of the crucial aspects regarding the Quran is its gradual revelation over the course of 23 years of the Prophet's mission, taking into account the exigencies of time and place, which further enriches its understanding. An important topic that has been discussed in Quranic studies from the time of the companions of the Prophet to the present day is the classification of Meccan and Medinan verses and surahs, which influences the approach to analyzing and interpreting the verses. The present research employs a descriptive-analytical methodology, and after presenting the viewpoints of Muslim scholars regarding the Meccan and Medinan nature of Quranic verses and surahs, it examines and critiques the opinions of Orientalist scholars in this regard, followed by a typology of their perspectives. Based on the findings of this study, the collection of opinions concerning the Meccan and Medinan nature of Quranic verses and surahs falls into five typological categories: Goldziher's dual perspective; Lamens and Nöldeke's tripartite perspective; Gustav Weil, Rodwell, and Blachère's four-part perspective; William Muir's six-part perspective; and the thematic classification by Richard Bell and Herschfeld. Notably, despite the significant variations in categorizing Meccan verses, ranging from one to five categories, Orientalists exhibited unanimity in considering the Medinan verses and surahs as a singular group, without discord, thus treating the Medinan section as a unified entity.

Reuven Firestone divides Yusuf’s article in the Encyclopedia of Islam into two sections: Quranic and post-Quranic texts, which is very inspiring and one of the strengths of this entry. This is because the processed story of Yusuf in the post-Quranic texts, influenced by the Old Testament, Israelites, narrative of forgers, and general literature, differs significantly from the story of Yusuf in the Quran. Although Firestone mentions the difference between the story of Yusuf Siddiq in the Quran and the Old Testament, he has not been able to follow up on this difference accurately. This present study employs a descriptive-analytical method to examine and critique this article based on the Quranic reports and their explanations in authentic Islamic hadiths. Among the criticisms made on the text of the article, which are also included in the achievements of this research, it can be mentioned whether Yusuf’s brothers sold him to the caravan? Was Prophet Yaqub’s (AS) reaction to Yusuf’s separation crying and mourning? Was he unaware of Yusuf being alive? Why didn’t Yusuf Siddiq come out of prison and did request the court on the ladies’ cutting their own hands from Pharaoh after interpreting the dream of the king of Egypt? Why is there no mention of Aziz of Egypt after the confession of those women and the beloved wife of Egypt about Yusuf’s innocence in the presence of the king of Egypt, and the king of Egypt chooses Yusuf Siddiq instead of him? Is Yusuf still Aziz of Egypt after the migration of the family of Yaqub to Egypt? If Yusuf is the ruler (king) of Egypt at this time, why didn’t his father, mother, and brothers prostrate to him; instead, according to the customs and traditions of the court of kings, the servants of the Egyptian court prostrated and paid respect to Yusuf, his father, and mother when they sat on the throne (“He raised his parents onto the throne”)?

The stability of the order of the Quran and the strength of its composition and authorship are among the miraculous aspects of the eloquence and rhetorical style of the Noble Quran. However, some Orientalists raise doubts about the grammatical and syntactical aspects of the Quranic text, questioning its authenticity and divine revelation. This study aims to analyze and critique these doubts by examining the grammatical and syntactical issues raised by Orientalists. Using a descriptive-analytical approach and adopting a critical perspective, this paper seeks to respond to Orientalist doubts put forth by scholars such as George Sale, John Burton, Noeldeke, Régis Blachère, and Abdul Fadi. The author argues for the divine origin of the Quran and defends its integrity against Orientalist criticisms. It is believed that the Quran possesses the pinnacle of eloquence and rhetoric, and the claims made by Orientalists in this regard stem from different intellectual foundations, biases, and conflicting perspectives on Islamic studies. These perspectives include considering the Quran as a human creation, its susceptibility to social influences, and its adaptation to contemporary culture. The methodological approach of these scholars in Quranic studies is often influenced by superficiality, bias, dogmatism, and a lack of precise understanding of the literary intricacies of the Quranic language or driven by opposing motivations.

Many contemporary intellectual trends and movements seek to confine the true understanding of religion within their own frameworks. Religious texts, even after 14 centuries since the emergence of Islam, continue to be the subject of debate and scrutiny by scholars. Some scholars consider these texts to possess divine truth, while others label them as mere texts in order to facilitate their historical analysis. The primary and ultimate goal of religious texts is to guide humanity. However, certain trends attempt to approach religious texts with leniency and a materialistic perspective that considers matter as the governing force of thought. Shahrur is among those who have been influenced by Marxism, which stands in contrast to idealistic perspectives that consider thought as the governing force of matter. In both views, there is a connection between thought and matter, which shows a kind of disregard and oversimplification, and has caused each of them to adopt a different and sometimes opposing method. Heritage, consisting of religious, moral, and social values, shapes the identity of every Muslim individual. One of the most important reasons for returning to heritage is that throughout Islamic history, there has not been a single influential and significant event other than the phenomenon of revelation. This revelation brought about the Quran, the Prophetic tradition, and the Ahl al-Bayt (the Prophet’s household), leading the nascent society of the pre-Islamic era towards civilization and introducing them to other nations through the teachings of the Prophet and the conquest of other lands. Shahrur, with his traditionalist Salafi thought, opposes this progress and considers it an obstacle to growth and modernization, resulting in stagnation in science and technology. He dissociates himself from traditional heritage and regards all Islamic heritage as traditional while simultaneously embracing Western and Orientalist heritage, which is summarized in materialism. His adherence to Western materialism has led him to deny the divine nature of the Quran and consider it as a historical text. This paper delves into the roots and foundations of Shahrur’s modernist ideas, demonstrating that they are all derived from Western Orientalist and Marxist thought. Furthermore, it critiques these foundations.

Scientific interpretation of Quran is one of the interpretive methods that has gained attention from Quranic researchers in the contemporary era. Analyzing and examining the foundations of this interpretive approach is necessary because many criticisms of the scientific interpretation method are based on judgments about the beliefs and practices of believers in scientific interpretation. Acceptance or rejection of these foundations will determine the interpreter’s enthusiasm or aversion to this interpretive method. Orientalist thinkers are among those who have engaged in evaluating the foundations of scientific interpretation. Some have criticized and denied these foundations, while others have deemed them valid and accepted scientific interpretation of the Quran. Studying and analyzing the perspectives of Orientalist scholars indicates that the second group, referred to in this article as positive Orientalists, believe in the conformity of Quranic teachings with actual benefits and harms and the possibility of empirically testing some scientific knowledge in the Quran, thereby negating any conflict between the Quran and science. They consider the utilization of scientific knowledge in the Quran as an undeniable necessity and present scientific findings as a means to better understand the Holy Quran. This group attributes the past Islamic scientific and cultural civilization to Quranic teachings and emphasizes the Quran’s responsiveness to the needs of contemporary and future humans. Another key foundation of scientific interpretation for this group is the consideration of the scientific miracles of the Quran, which has been remarkable for some Orientalists and has led to their insight.