نشریه هنرهای صناعی ایران
سال ششم شماره 1 (پیاپی 10، بهار و تابستان 1402)

According to the political thought of Iran Shahri, achieving justice in the social system was one of the main issues of the Middle Ages in Islamic Iran. In this political thought, justice was designed as a means of aligning social order with the sacred order of the cosmos. During this period, as a result of Iranians' confrontation with Turkish and Mongolian traditions, special aspects of various dimensions of the concept of justice were formed in Iranian culture, society, and artistic works. Based on tribal traditions, the power that was based on the sword was one of the most important components of the formation of the courts of Turkish and Mongolian rulers. One of the results of this approach was disorder and political instability at the level of the court and society. In the Timurid period, political changes resulted in the significance of the position of divan-salar and the emergence of competition between Timurid emirs and Iranian ministers to gain divan positions. These competitions were among the factors creating instability and disorder at the court. One of the measures taken to deal with such tensions was the use of miniature art in the context of political admonition tradition.

The research method is descriptive-analytical and historical in terms of fundamental goals and nature. The data collection method is documentary and library-based. In this research, a miniature with the title of “The Poet’s Praise of the Robber-Chief” was analyzed as a case study. The sample selection method was purposive, and the data analysis was done qualitatively. First, based on library documents and sources, the political necessities of the formation of this miniature from a manuscript from Sa’di's Gulistan during Shahrokh's reign were examined. Based on the identified political necessities during Shahrokh's era and the political advisory qualities of Sa’di's work, from Shahri's outlook, a qualitative analysis of this miniature was undertaken in relation to the political advisory tradition and the concept of justice.

Research Findings ‎:

Given the entry of emirs into bureaucratic affairs, the illustrating of the “The Poet’s Praise of the Robber-Chief” by Iranian artists from the Baysunghur library was a significant action. The subject of this miniature was based on the tenth story of the fourth chapter of Sa’di's Gulistan, entitled “On the Benefits of Silence.” In this story, Sa’di briefly portrayed how through the presence of a deceitful ruler, the disruption of the righteous social order and the disturbance in the system of epistemology occur. From Iran Shahri's perspective, when foreign rulers are falsely placed in the position of sovereignty, the court becomes a source of oppression, and the order of all affairs becomes disrupted by lies. Accordingly, Sa’di, by presenting two attributes of the “praiser” for the poet and the “thief” for the military commander, portrayed a situation of disorder of meanings and a disruption of the function of individuals emerged as a result of the oppression of the rulers. Through creating an interaction between the praising poet and the robber-chief, Sa’di emphasized the role of the deceitful rulers and highlighted the astonishing consequences of the contemporary oppression by referring to the nudity of the poet, wild dogs, and frozen stones.In the examined miniature, considering the similarity between the robber-chief depiction and the Timurid emirs' portrayal, this miniature gave a tangible representation of the past in proportion to their contemporary time and created a contemporary admonition. The drawing of facial features, clothing, sword, boots, and turban depicted for the robber-chief had a noticeable similarity to how these elements had been depicted in other miniatures of this period reflecting the characteristics of Timurid emirs. Attention to the decorations and details of the luxurious clothing for Dezdadan also added to the necessity for the reflection on this miniature. Based on this, in this miniature, thieves were depicted with clothing and faces similar to those belonged to Timurid emirs. By observing this miniature, it could be imagined that a poet, before what was depicted by painters, went to the palace of the holy city with the intention of praising the ruler living there; however, instead of receiving a reward, his clothes were stolen by the robber-chief, who falsely took his place in the palace. As a result, with the presence of deceitful emirs, this holy palace also lost its authority in order and righteousness and became a place for the residence of oppressors. Based on this, it can be concluded that in addition to the defined elements of military commanders, equating him with Timurid emirs, the depicted location for his presence in this miniature was not a ruin or a room in a remote village suitable for thieves, but a place equivalent to the government palace and court.

The miniature of the poet’s praise of the robber-chief is an example of political advisory art that emphasizes the importance of establishing order in the court and justice in governance. Iranian artists from the Baysunghur library created this miniature based on Saa’di's political advisory poem, representing contemporary political realities and confronting Turkish and Mongolian traditions present in Shahrokh's court. The artists depicted the disorder of the times and the transformation of roles and functions through the portrayal of astonishing elements such as stones, dogs, praising poets, and the clothing and the palace of the robber-chief. The miniature also highlights the role of Timurid emirs in the court and their similarity to Dezdadan. Through the continuation of Sa’di's role in political admonition, the artists also criticize the inappropriate behavior of praising poets in the court. The entry of Timurid emirs into bureaucratic affairs during Shahrokh's reign was considered a factor in disrupting the court's order from Iran Shahri's view. Therefore, depicting thieves with clothing and faces similar to Timurid emirs in this miniature can be seen as a critique of their behavior. Finally, this process highlights the role of artists from the Baysunghur library in reinterpreting and presenting Iran Shahri's political thought principles through political advisory art.

The altar is a symbol of a holy place. The tradition of decorating altars, which is repeated as a stylistic form in the Islamic period, is related to the religious philosophical concept that emphasizes the concept of this holy place. Based on symbolism, the center is the supreme example of holiness and pure reality  as all other symbols of pure reality (such as the tree of life, the fountain of youth, and so on.) are also located in the center. In this research, the concept of the decorative motifs of trees and vases in the altar is analyzed considering the sacredness of this place. The present analysis seeks to answer this question: what is the relationship between the symbols of water and plants represented in the altars of the Islamic period and their earlier visual patterns in the pre-Islamic art in Iran.

This study is descriptive-analytical in terms of methodology. The data collection method is based on library review, and data analysis was done qualitatively. The principle of evolutionism is based on the fact that every cultural phenomenon should be considered the result of a long chain of changes along a time-space line.

The intellectual principles of evolutionary theory are based on a belief in an evolutionary line, a beginning, an end, and milestones that can be called moments of leap or fundamental change. In this approach, the shapes and their changes in the works were taken into consideration; it depicted how an art form spread on a territory or a historical aspect. This principle is noteworthy that some components of a certain culture and practices or customs may remain in the same culture for a long time after the transformation of other components. According to Taylor, two important laws about religion and culture exist. The first principle is the unity or the psychological sameness among human beings. The second principle is the pattern of human evolution or intellectual progress over time. The cultural and intellectual evolution of human and the basic homomorphism of the human mind are related to each other. The principles of evolutionism can be analyzed for the symbols of water and trees in Islamic altars. Persian myths have described the two symbolic elements of water and trees in the holy places and considered them to represent the center of the universe and the origin of life, respectively. In the verses of the Holy Quran, these symbolic trees are mentioned and described. The descriptions of the Tubi Tree, the Sidra al-Muntahi Tree, the olive tree along with the description of the paradises with flowing rivers show the place of these symbols in the holy book of the Quran. In these verses, the connection of faith, piety, and goodness with the symbols of water and the eternal tree is evident. In fact, these descriptions of the heavenly book in the form of an allegory, derived from the archetypes, are about the sacred tree and correspond to the evolutionary process of this symbol. The evolution of elements from the ancient texts (the pre-Islamic religious texts), i.e., the symbols of the tree and the water of life, can be seen in the text of the Qur'an, as the most recent religious text. They  have found an evolutionary and allegorical form and are continuous with the element of goodness and salvation. In this evolutionary process, a change in the meaning of symbols of the tree of life and the water of life can be seen: that is, a change from eternal life and immortality in the material world to immortality in connection with faith in the metaphysical world. In fact, the symbols have become sublime.

On the basis of intertextuality, there is no text without a pre-text, and on the basis of the theory of evolution, it can be emphasized that in the field of sacred water and plants, the oldest art forms have been established and continued from the past. These components of Iranian culture have been continued in their original form or along with evolutionary changes in the arts of the Islamic period, especially in altars. The tree of life appears with a tree and plant motif, and the water of life is represented by the symbol of a jar or cup. Based on these documents and the first principle of evolutionism, a mental and religious pattern related to the sanctity of natural elements can be identified in the minds of Iranian people. With the religious transition that happened in Iran after Islam and the domination of monotheism and monotheism, the idea of praising one God and the mystical view of the world, as the signs of the Lord, created the ground for the use of natural symbols of water and trees in altars. This common feature of respect for nature in pre-Islamic Iran, which bore many similarities with ancient civilizations, is a form of human psychological unity in accordance with the first principle of evolutionism. In Iranian altars, the sacred tree is located in the center of the altar, and sometimes it is wrapped in the form of an abstract plant motif on the pillars of the altar. The pot or jar is also at the bottom of the tree or column or on top of it. While the divine verses, which are the sources of blessing and life-giving, are revealed on it. In fact, the jar is the medium of receiving grace from heaven. The evolved forms of plant elements have evolved. Arabesques and khatais replaced the leafy trees of the Sassanid period with systematic rotations, and the jars, at the top and bottom of the columns were sometimes decorated with plant motifs. And this course of semantic and formal evolution in the design of water and tree symbols in the altar is in accordance with the second principle of evolutionism, which means progress and evolution over time. Continuity of prayer at the altar and communication with the Almighty God, accompanied by the symbols of the tree and the jar, is reminiscent of heavenly descriptions of believers’ connection with the heavenly trees, flowing streams, and the cups filled with pure wine from the heavenly streams.

Since the middle of the 19th century, the first international exhibitions were shaped in Europe with the aim of displaying emerging industrial products and Eastern and Western cultural goods. The first international exhibitions of Islamic art, such as Vienna’s 1873 and 1891 Oriental carpets exhibitions, were held in the last decades of the same century. formed on some museums’ initiatives, those exhibitions First encouraged European collectors to try to surpass each other in collecting and displaying such works. Collectors, who had yet to be experts in Islamic arts, collected such works because of their aesthetic charm and material worth, not paying much attention to their historical or cultural aspects. Deeper knowledge of Islamic arts caused exhibitions to become not only more organized but also more systematic; scientific research methods became the criterion for evaluating the works including Safavid carpets. The three exhibitions, held in Paris 1903, Munich 1910, and New York 1910, played a significant role both in defining and revising the proper research methods for Safavid carpets and in correcting the previous data about them.

The purpose of this research is to analyze the role of the exhibitions, held in Paris 1903, Munich 1910, and New York 1910, in introducing the Safavid carpets to the Western Academies. Also, the methods by which the Western carpet scholars collected, dated, categorized, gathered, and displayed the Safavid carpets to have a more detailed understanding of them were analyzed. The questions that were also addressed in that direction included: a) what was the role of the mentioned exhibitions in the recognition of the Safavid carpets in the Western academy? b)What methods were used by the western carpet scholars to collect, date, categorize, and gather the Safavid carpets? This is a fundamental documentary research, and its method is descriptive and analytical. Its statistical population included the documents, photos, and catalogs of the above-mentioned exhibitions. The sampling method  was total enumeration, and the data was analyzed qualitatively.

The findings of the paper showed that the processes of collecting, dating, categorizing, and displaying the Safavid carpets were a chain of events,  taking place in the West to identify them. They had tight connections with the expansion of the aesthetical, technical, and historical knowledge about Safavid carpets as well as their classification. The maturity of the identification Safavid carpets, as a sub-discipline of Islamic art studies, was also resulted from this route. In other words, collecting carpets in the West created a reciprocal relation with the more profound knowledge of Safavid carpets; what was collected determined and dictateed what to be studied, and what was studied led to the correction of collecting and identifying models. Thus, carpet scholars and curators created a chain of identifying actions that shaped further categories and ideas about Safavid carpets in the West. Moreover, the findings and the results of this paper showed that the three exhibitions of the first decade of the 20th century corrected the mistakes of the preceding exhibitions  about the identification of Safavid carpets’. This point can be seen especially in the groups of Polonaise, Salting, Sanguszko, and Heraticarpets, notably in the way of their former dating and classification. Additionally, the researchers used comparative study as their most important method in analyzing the Safavid carpets in order to reach a more accurate knowledge. They even studied the decorations of other arts such as architectural ornaments and book designs or the arts of other lands to date and to compare with Safavid carpets. It is worth mentioning that incorrect dating occurred mostly in the case of carpets woven in the first decades of the Safavid rule. Generally, the carpets of this era were wrongly speculated to be Ilkhanid or Timurid. There were other identification failures in this course such as misattributing some carpets to certain areas, wrong dating resulted from the lack of enlightenment about Iranian art history,  ignoring carpet production bases, and consequently separating carpets from their local and cultural origins. Nevertheless, each exhibition, in which a collection of new carpets was presented, led to the correction of the research methods and the eventual expansion of identification models. In other words, with the expansion of knowledge obtained from each exhibition, the asymmetric comparative method, in which there is little information on both sides of the equation, little by little achieved the balance and changed into a symmetric comparison. However, the mere use of comparative method was not sufficient for some groups, such as the Salting. It was the scientific development of the late 20thcentury in laboratory methods and fiber and dye analyses that enabled researchers to reach certainty.

The results of this paper show that the process of collecting Safavid carpets has been precisely connected with the classification of these carpets in the West and the resultant expansion of the aesthetic, technical, and historical knowledge about them. In other words, what was collected determined what was studied, and what was studied led to the correction of the collecting and recognizing models. The results also show that the main method used by the researchers in analyzing Safavid carpets was comparative; with a comparison, based on elemental similarities, the researchers placed those carpets that were not apparently related to a certain group or structure in a genealogical category. Anyhow, the identification of Safavid carpets, with all of its advancement in the last century, needs more local research to conform to the Iranian comprehension of carpets. In this direction, the works of Western researchers should be critically analyzed; Thus, examining the path they have taken and reviewing their methods and approaches will lead to a deeper nderstanding.

The Qajar period is assumed to be the era of artistic and historical development in tile making techniques. In the meantime, human motifs in tiles were developed by promoting archaism. The trend of nationalism in art and its symmetry with the spread of Westernism caused the growth of artworks with Iranian kingdom and mythological themes. The ceramic table in Tehran's Abgineh and Pottery Museum, belonging to the Qajar era, with motifs of mythological warriors of Shahnameh, is an evidence for this. This ceramic table does not have any signature of the tile maker. A circular table with a radius of 63 cm, the layout of which consists of nine pieces of tiles, includes a central circular tile with a radius of 38 cm and eight side trapezoidal tiles. The main theme of the ceramic table motifs has been taken from the stories of Shahnameh and contains many floral, arabesque, and human motifs (figures of kings and mythical warriors).

So far studies have been carried out on two fundamental and related topics, namely, tile work of the Qajar period and the tile makers of this era. In-depth and detailed investigations and studies in this area mostly focused on the field of architecture, wall tiles, artifacts, the effect of various components in the formation of motifs, and their comparison with other works of art including manuscripts, paintings, photographs, and so on. This research focuses on those characters of Shahnameh who appeared on the mentioned table. The present research deals with the following: a) a recognition of motifs of Rostam and other heroes of Shahnameh in the scenes on the table and comparing them with similar scenes of lithographs and verses of Shahnameh; b) A study of the style regarding the characteristics of composition and aesthetic aspects of the table in Abgineh Museum. The research method is descriptive-analytical, and the data collection method is based on library sources and field visits. In this study, first the ceramic tables of Qajar period is introduced; then, the table in Abgineh Museum is carefully studied and analyzed.

During the Qajar era, the travel of courtiers, students, and artists to Europe increased rapidly. These successive visits caused extensive cultural exchanges between Iranian and foreign artists. Besides, the nobles went to Europe (Farang), and on their return to Iran they commissioned imitated excelled European works of art to Iranian artists. One of these works was the ceramic table. These tables were popular in countries such as France and sought after by the wealthy class. They sometimes served as diplomatic gifts. Sevres Chinese factory was one of the centers, in which these tables were mass-produced. This center made products completely similar to the table in Tehran Museum of Abgineh and Sofalineh. The use of furniture was very popular in the court, among nobles, and for the wealthy class of the society in the Qajar era. Regarding this, functional tools adopted more decorative and elegant styles. Among them, ceramic tables with wooden bases, generally round, were usually composed by tile makers in individual styles as a set of tiles with trapezoidal and circular shapes in the center. A large number of such ceramic tables with nationalistic, epic motifs were made in different parts of Iran and presented as luxurious, diplomatic gifts, or decorative elements in the houses and palaces. At least, three of them are available in the Ivory Hall of Golestan Palace. They were also sold in large auctions by anonymous individuals. Another large circular tile with the accession number 2428/18776, underglaze painting technique with a diameter of 50 cm with an image of bull riding Fereydoun conquering Zahak is available in the National Museum of Bucharest. This table belongs to the Qajar period. There are many other specimens of this incomplete table, which have mere central circular parts, in the collection of Golestan Palace. Another representative example of this type of table including the signature of Ali Mohammad Esfahani, the tile maker, is the table in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. This table, ordered by Murdoch Smith, was made with an outstanding and elaborate pattern. The subject of this study is the ceramic table of Abgine Museum, with access number 273.

The ceramic table with access number 273, has a circular shape with a radius of 63 cm, with an arrangement consisting of eight trapezoidal tiles around the central part with a radius of 38 cm. The main themes are centered around the stories of Shahnameh including plants, urban, and court scenes, human figures, mainly that of kings and heroes of Shahnameh. The artist who created this work is unknown. There is no signature or a document to introduce him. In the central part of the table, above each human motif, there are names of mythological characters of Shahnameh. These names in order are: Zab, Kiyomarth, Firouz, Lahraseb, Ashkobus, Vishtaseb, Iskandar, and Afrasiab. These names provide the viewer with good hints to recall the stories of Shahnameh. They also depict the popularity of those stories in the society of the tile makers. However, in the surrounding trapezoidal tiles, there are no inscriptions that introduce people or refer to a specific story or narrative. Only based on a series of indicators taken from the verses of Shahnameh, the figures can be recognized. For instance, Rostam wearing a skin dress, a two-horned hat with a half of demon’s face and a special two-parted beard. As a result, it can be assumed that the characters in front of Rostam are the same people that Rostam interacted with them through Shahnameh’s narratives such as Siavash, Sohrab, Zal, and so on. The appearance of these motifs on this table and other similar tables basically shows the promotion of antiquarian culture in the Qajar era with the approach of compensating for the sense of emptiness against the cultural invasion of the West. The effects of modernity resulted in the rise of national pride for the mythical ancient history and Persian literature, for which characters of Shahnameh were the best example. This feeling of pride towards Iranian nationality is completely evident in the artistic motifs, especially on the table in the Abgineh and Sofaline Museum. Each figure mentioned on the table had a hidden point in his/her mythological character to convey the artist's intention to preserve and honor these national values.

The construction date of the ‘Twelve ImamsMausoleum’ in Yazd goes back to the end of the Buyidsand Daylamites periods. The architectural ornaments of this building include murals, plasterworks, faience mosaics, and brickworks; also, an inscription with decorative Kufic script has decorated its parts. The research conducted on this building is limited to the architecture and restoration of its external walls, while the dome has valuable ornaments, including the inscription of ‘Ayatul Kursi’ in its Grivar. This inscriptionis implemented using the technique of ‘painting on plaster’. This historical monument has been seriously damaged due to the age of the building and the destructive environmental effects on it. These damages are either erosion destroying the appearance of the building or the structural destruction destroying the foundation of the building; therefore, knowing the damage so as to prevent further destruction and reconstruction is of particular importance to preserving this thousand-year-old monument.

This research tries to study the damages inflicted on this inscription with the help of reconstruction and damage photography. It, also, tries to to know the structure and motifs used in it in comparison with similar inscriptions. The questions raised in this research were: 1- What were the damages caused to the Grivar inscription in the Twelve Imams Mausoleum? 2- What was the general structure and decorations used for this ornament? This research was descriptive-analytical, and data collection was based on library studies and field surveys. Its approach in the image processing section of the inscription to determine the amount of damage was quantitative, and in the structural analysis it was qualitative. The primary research sources were provided using field photography; the damage mapping of the sides of the inscription was reconstructed based on photographs and images; image processing was provided using a computer program and a color analysis method. The images processed based on color; the numerical results were separated and analyzed based on tables, and the possibility of reproducing the inscription provided the conditions for its structural investigation concerning the analysis of external components and visual features.

The mentioned inscription is in Kufic (Moashaq Moshajar) script, written in dark azure color on a plaster base. This inscription began with "Bismillah" from the third side of the top of the entrance door and ended with the phrase ‘Al-Ali al-Azeem’ at the end of the eighth side. Over time, damages were imposed on this inscription, leading to the destruction of many parts. Among these damages were humidity, mud,and water flow from the upper parts on the surface of the inscription, the effect of suspended particles in the air, pollution, and dust, the change in the writing's color, the loosening of the paint layer, and its separation from the plaster bed due to the passage of time, penetration termites and the porosity caused by their activity in the lower layers, the cracks caused by earthquakes or other shocks and the forces entering the building, and the traces of droppings of birds or other creatures on the surface of the inscription. Measuring the accurate amount of damage on each side was done in the form of three separate images for each side: 1- The reproduced image of each side of the inscription was in black and white without destruction (the processing of this image provides the amount of positive (text) and negative (background) space to determine the amount of damage in other destructions). 2- The recreated image of each side showed infrastructure destruction in red and paint loss in blue 3- A black-and-white image of each side of the inscription was used to estimate surface pollution. Based on this damage imaging method, by comparing the white and black colors on each side and the percentage of white and black in the ‘initial recreated design’, it was noted whether the destruction damaged the writing itself or the background of the inscription. Accordingly, the fifth side had the most serious destruction of the background with 8%, and the the most serious destruction of the text with 7%. The results of the processing of the blue color, which represents the ‘paint loss’ showed that the first side had the highest amount of paint loss (7% loss), which caused the color of the design and the background to be the same. The lowest amount of paintloss was assigned to the second and the third sides. According to the results, ‘surface pollution,’ had a 100% extent in the inscription.

Based on the reconstruction of the destructed parts, damage imaging, and image processing with computer programs, the damages have been divided into three general categories: 1) destruction of infrastructure materials, 2) paint loss, 3) surface pollution. The results indicate that the most serious damage was caused mainly by the fall of infrastructure materials, paint loss, and environmental pollution. Structural analysis showed that this inscription had all three structural components of inscriptions including the plant system in the upper part, the geometric system in the middle part, and the writing system in the lower part. The greatest similarity was in the plantmotif, and the greatest diversity was seen in the knots of the geometric part. Although these systems were not necessarily used in all architectural inscriptions, this inscription had all three parts in a structured way showing that the designer had designed each component in harmony to achieve a coherent whole.

Over the past three centuries (19th, 20th, and 21st centuries), the study of Islamic decorative art has gained significant attention from orientalists, archaeologists, historians, and scholars of Islamic art. During this time, various perspectives on decoration have emerged, ranging from universal approaches that view Islamic decoration as a mystical and symbolic phenomenon to formalist considerations emphasizing its role as a national and cultural identity. The purpose of this research is to examine the evolution of the perspectives on decorative functions in the field of Islamic art studies. The research question guiding this study is: what has been the trend in the development of the art history and semantic functions of decorations in the material culture of the Islamic lands?

To address this question, this study employs a four-fold approach to examine decorations: the exploratory-typological approach, the early-historical (historical-stylistic) approach, the universality approach, and the later-historical (cultural-contextual) approach. Each of these approaches is utilized to scrutinize the functions of decorations within the field of Islamic art studies.

Through an examination of studies conducted during the 19th, 20th, and 21st centuries, it has been observed that Orientalists encountered Islamic decorations as a newly discovered phenomenon in the 19th century. The predominant functions assigned to decoration during this period were associated with Islamic lands, with the Orientalists interpreting these functions as derived from the religion of Islam and the cultures of the East. Additionally, scholars such as Albert Gayet and James Ward made comprehensive efforts to study Islamic decoration. At the beginning of the 20th century, a new generation of historians approached Islamic decoration from historical and stylistic perspectives. This period sought to interpret Islamic decoration in terms of both symbolic and stylistic functions. Researchers such as Ernst Hertzfeld and Richard Ettinghausen introduced cultural and social values into the study of decorations, laying the groundwork for later historical studies in the 20th and 21st centuries. Furthermore, in the 20th century, there emerged universal approaches that attributed common characteristics to decorations through trans-historical interpretations or psychological analyses. Traditionalists such as Hossein Nasr or Titus Burckhardt ascribed symbolic meanings and universal characteristics to decoration. Ernst Gombrich, drawing on the theory of perception, proposed that decorations had a similar impact on viewers' reception, with the pleasure derived from discovering rhythm playing a significant role. Ernst Gombrich also suggested that the viewers' inclination towards projection, reification, and animation influenced their responses to decoration and their interpretations.In the second half of 20th and the 21st centuries, studies on decoration has placed a greater emphasis on the perspective and interpretation of the audience, seeking to consider the background and context in which artworks have been created. Oleg Grabar can be regarded as the most influential scholar in the recent historical studies as his research delves into historical and cultural sources to establish more precise meanings and historical functions of Islamic decoration. During this period, the role of the audience in determining the function of ornament has become more pronounced.

The research findings has revealed a diversity of perspectives that emerged in the recognition of the functions of decoration. In the exploratory-typological approach, the formal function of decoration is dominant, with decoration serving as a visual expression of new religious features imbued with ethnic, racial, eastern spiritcharacteristics. In the early-historical approach, decoration is often perceived as a symbolic or meaningful element, serving as a starting point for reflections on the discovery of meaning and an examination of the historical and cultural backgrounds of decoration. The universality approach is divided into two distinct areas. In transhistorical studies, the function of decoration is characterized as transcendental, representing the divinity and unity of God. In psychological studies, the function of decoration and its effects on human behavior, choices, and psychological states are emphasized. With the emergence of the later historical approach in the second half of the twentieth century, there was a focus on the perception and interpretation of decorative patterns by the audience with an emphasis on the aesthetic and semantic functions of decoration.Bbased on linguistic studies, decoration is addressed as a cultural sign.

At the beginning of the Qajar dynasty (during the 19th century),  many  international companies and national carpet manufacturers started working in Iran. These manufacturers had their own signatures on carpets which were unique. This time in Kerman, there were some carpet manufacturers that played influential roles on Kerman carpet history and its introduction to the world. Besides, people who were interested in art knew artists that were familiar with Eastern and Western artists, even though Iranian leading pioneers are now subject to oblivion. Mohammad Arjmand Kermani was one of these eminent people who had a pivotal role in Kerman carpet history. Although he faced lots of challenges and hardship during his professional activities, he did not give up and continued his profession. As a result, he wrote an important chapter on Kerman’s carpet.

The primary purpose of this research is to classify the design of signed carpets by Mohammad Arjmand Kermani and analyze the effective factors which formed the designs and motifs in his carpets. The questions are also in the same direction: a) which classifications and categories do the carpets woven by Mohammad Arjmand Kermani follow? b) What factors caused these classifications to be created? This research used a descriptive-analytical method. The research data was collected through fieldwork studies, interviews with his family and carpet experts, as well as through library studies . Furthermore, in order to accomplish the research aim, five carpet experts were selected and interviewed doing semi-structured interviews. The statistical population included those carpets signed by Mohammad Arjmand Kermani as ‘Amal-E Mohammad IbneJafar’, ‘Mohammad Arjmand Kermani’, and  ‘Arjmand Kermani’. Finally, twenty one signed carpets were selected due to availability and ease of access.

Mohammad Arjmand Kermani was a leading carpet manufacturer who produced carpets from the late Qajar era till the Pahlavid period in Kerman. The findings of the paper showed that his lifestyle and his approach to life had a key impact  on his success. For instance, during his childhood (at the age of 7) he quitted the elementary school and joined carpet designing workshops in Kerman. He was trained under the supervision of great carpet designers such as Hassan Khan Shahrokhi and Zaman Khan Mir Hosseini. Then, he learned the dying and weaving process. Consequently, from early ages he learnt how to produce a rug. Getting married with the daughter of a shawl dealer was another key event in his life. This marriage gave him the opportunity to transform his father-in-law’s shawl workshop to a carpet workshop.  During 19th and 20th centuries Kerman carpet was in  its golden age in terms of carpet exports. It means that during that time, many companies investigated in and dedicated their money to Kerman carpets. Thus, there was a great demand for Kerman rugs. In addition, Arjmand’s personality traits, including his hard working, quick wittedness, early rising, determination, intelligence, smartness, creativity, inventiveness, responsibility, trustworthiness, respectability were important factors resulting in his success. He had various carpet signatures but the most important ones were ‘Mohammad Ibn Jafar’, ‘Mohammad Arjmand Kermani’ and ‘Ajrmand Kermani’. The point regarding these signatures was that each of them reflected the time of the carpet production. For example, ‘Mohammad Ibn Jafar’ signature indicated that those carpets werewoven over the course of the Qajar era when he had no family name, and people called him afterhis father’s name. By contrast, other signatures such as ‘Arjmand Kermani’ and ‘Mohammad Arjmand Kermani’ indicated that some carpets were woven during the Pahlavid era when he had obtained a family name. Moreover, the findings and results of this paper showed that his signed artworks were classified under two main design groups which included visual and decorative designs. Since various designs had been seen within each group, a more detailed classification for each category was proposed under the title of species. Therefore, each category had different types. The visual design group included portrait type species, governmental sign species, beliefs species, narrative species, and the imitative species affected by Western pictures. The decorative group included these species: the classic, Vase design, Vagire, Afshan, MatnPoshideh. It is worth mentioning that all these classifications were made based on his signed carpets.

The results of this paper has showed that all Arjmand’s signed carpets were attributed to two main groups which were the visual design group and the decorative design group. According to findings, it was concluded that the visual carpets that carried ‘Mohammadb Ibn Jafar’ as the signature indicated that they belonged to the end of the Qajar period and the portrait type, attributed to the visual design group, included the picture of Mashahir (renowned people), kings, and leading rulers.Since this special species contained the pictures of the Mashahir, of monarchs such as Ahmad Shah Qajar, or of other outstanding rulers of the time, their commission by famous people to art manufactures including Mohammad Arjmand was confirmed The second design group which was the decorative one, carried two signatures:  ‘Mohammad Arjmand Kermani’ and ‘Arjmand Kermani’. These two signatures demonstrated that these carpets were produced in the Pahlavid period and had five species, including classic, Vase, Afshan, MatnPoshide, and Vagire designs. According to findings of this research, it was concluded that during the Pahlavid era, Arjmand had many commissions from the religious and governmental organizations (there are official documents at the museum that confirm this idea). Besides, he could manage all carpet workshops properly to manufacture quality rugs in terms of designs, colors, materials, and the weaving process. Moreover, he could produce oversize carpets for the halls of palaces. Commissions, demands, and unique carpet workshops were the most important factors affecting the designs of Mohammad Arjmand’s carpets. Also, the result of fieldwork study showed that Arjmand’s carpet workshops were built like a modern factory providing him with thorough control and supervision over all processes. Because of the uniqueness of his carpet workshops at that time, he could manage and address all parts of the weaving process and focus on producing various designs, quality carpets, and oversize rugs. As a result, he became a leading carpet manufacturer and obtained the nickname of ‘King of Persian carpet’ by foreigners.

Tile Painters artists in Shīrāz played an essential role in preserving Qājār ‎traditions and restoring historical buildings during the Pahlavi era. Among them, ‎Moḩammad Bāqer Jahānmiri (1883-1959), known as "Hāji Moḩammad Bāqer-e-Naqāsh" or ‎‎"Hāji Bāqer," a tile painter, stained glass artist, stucco artist, and mural conservationist of ‎the Pahlavi era in Shīrāz, kept the legacy of the tile Painting alive and worked tirelessly to ‎preserve it until the very end of his life. His works stood out due to his skill in painting and ‎his complete familiarity with ceramic techniques during his time. However, these works ‎have been less studied and categorized. One of the reasons for this is the small number of ‎his works with figures, and another is the shade of tile painters such as Mirzā Abd al-Razzāq ‎Kashipaz (1867-1937 or 38).‎

The current research deals with the "interpretive-historical strategy" ‎and an analytical approach to describe, recognize, and study the works and life of ‎Moḩammad Bāqer Jahānmiri, and its final goal is to reach a "monograph." Parts of the ‎necessary data are collected from library sources, and an essential part of the ‎documentation is the result of fieldwork and photography that produced first-hand data and ‎had no previous traces in the research. Since the reference to unsigned tiles reduces the ‎accuracy of the results, only signed tiles have been used as the basis for analysis and ‎classification, and the presentation of samples without signs or those attributed to him has ‎been avoided. Undoubtedly, some signed tiles may be kept in private buildings or personal ‎collections; therefore, access to them was impossible in this research. The research ‎questions are as follows: (a) at what intervals can Jahānmiri's artistic life be divided? (b) ‎Who were his supporters, colleagues, and students? (c) What are the categories of his works ‎and the prevalent themes?‎

The artistic life of Moḩammad Bāqer can be divided into three ‎general periods: the first period is the "Qājār period," the second period is the "Rezā Shāh ‎Pahlavi" and the third period is "the Moḩammad Rezā Shāh Pahlavi period." Unfortunately, ‎an essential part of the painter Haji Moḩammad Bāqer's artistic life was spent in the ‎turmoil caused by the Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905-1911), the First World War ‎‎(1914-1918), and the Tremendous Iranian Famine (1917-1919). The names of the masters ‎and workshops he gained experience during the first period of his artistic life have not been ‎mentioned, but it seems that the beginning of his artistic life must be in the era of Muzaffar ‎al-Din Shāh. But so far, no significant works of him related to the Qājār period have been ‎found, and there is no document of his collaboration with any tile workshops in that period. ‎The Rezā Shāh Pahlavi era is the second period of Moḩammad Bāqer's artistic life. This ‎short period (1925-1941/ 16 years) can be considered the time when many of his important ‎works were created with Qājār's theme and were less affected by the social and political ‎developments of the time. His employers and supporters in this period were folks and ‎wealthy people who owned public buildings. The third period of Moḩammad Bāqer's artistic ‎life is the Moḩammad Rezā Shāh Pahlavi period. This period is from 1925 until he died in ‎‎1959 (18 years). In these days and ages, most of his activities are to carry out essential ‎orders, primarily government employers. The signed works identified by Moḩammad Bāqer ‎Jahānmiri so far, and I observed them from close inspection or documentation, include 14 ‎works that belong to the second and third periods of his artistic life during the Pahlavi era. ‎Signed items can be classified into 5 groups in terms of location:‎a) Works in residential buildings: Sa'dat and Towhidi houses and tiles on the front of an ‎unspecified house in Shīrāz;‎b) Works in religious buildings: Vakil Mosque, Jame Atiq Mosque, Siyavshān Mosque, ‎Imamzāde Seyyed Tajuddin Qarib, Imamzade Ibrahim and Aghā Bābā Khān School;‎c) Works in commercial buildings: Haj Naser Korhani bazaar;‎d) The works in the monuments: Qorān Gate and Sa'di Tomb;‎e) The works in health and treatment buildings: Jawanmardi bath and the entrance of ‎Namāzi hospital.‎Compared to masters such as Mirzā Abd al-Razzāq, his signed method shows that ‎Jahānmiri used his name in many cases in a small, simple, and uncomplicated way. This ‎issue can represent his humble and blushing character.‎

In this research, 14 of his signed tiles have been identified, which include a ‎variety of residential, religious, commercial, and memorial buildings. Most of his works with ‎figures from religious buildings and monuments are placed at the end of his life. The ‎available evidence shows that Jahānmiri did not collaborate with any other tile painter ‎except Karim Faqfouri, and there is no indication of the number of other painters who ‎worked under him in his works. However, plaster painters and tile painters were trained in ‎his workshop, some of which are known in the oral history of Shirāz artists. The classification ‎of his signed tiles shows that these works can be placed in 6 groups, including "floral and ‎bird motif (Gol-o-Morgh)," "Antiquity," "Iconography & portraiture," "Europeanized ‎motives," "Imaginary painting," and "Tile-Epigraphy." Flower and bird tiles and floral motifs ‎can be seen in almost all works and periods of his artistic life. The analysis of the theme of ‎his tile paintings, in general, suggests four ideas as the ideas governing the works. These ‎cases include "Europeanized motifs" (in the design of buildings, landscapes, and Western ‎sceneries), "Religious motifs" (in the portraits of religious narratives and Shi'ite figures), ‎‎"Ancient Iranian motifs" (in the design of scenes and figures from the Achaemenid and ‎Sassanid dynasties), and "Motifs derived from Iranian painting" (in the design of floral and ‎bird motifs and plant patterns). Further studies can validate and verify other tiles attributed ‎to Jahānmiri based on the design and artistic features governing his works with figures, ‎which hopefully would be noticed by others.‎

In the contemporary world, where cultural and national identity are a matter of utmost importance, packaging of products seems to be an obvious instance or representation of national and cultural identity. Packaging is a factor that affects product evaluation. When buying goods, people see packaging carefully and keep some of them in their houses for years. For this reason, packaging is of great importance.The present research is important because in the recent years, the use of repetitive designs or imitation of foreign packaging designs have caused most of the packaging of Iranian products to be lacking in creativity, identity, and culture in the global markets. Therefore, the use of Iranian and traditional motifs, that have visual principles, will be suitable options to create creativity and aesthetics in the packaging of goods. Patterns taken from Persian carpets are one of the most important Iranian handicrafts that can be considered a good option for creating a national  identity.

The present study, hence, was an attempt to develop the effectiveness of Iranian identity formation on packaging industry by focusing on the graphical potentials of two Iranian carpet motifs. The study tried to answer this question: whether or not using Iranian carpet motifs could improve national identity formation, and, if it did, with respect to the aesthetics of Iranian carpet designs and motifs, which methods should be used to facilitate such identity formation.The study used a descriptive-analytical method using library materials. After analyzing the images of Brick-shaped Yalameh and MinakhaniVaramin carpets and following principles of the visual imagery, the authors used the motifs and offered 12 designs for packaging goods. About the capabilities of patterns and structures of Yalma and Minakhani carpets, three general designs were proposed. The first was using the whole structure of the carpet design or a part of the carpet motifs without any change in the  fringe, border, and so on. The second was  using a part of the motifs in combination with other packaging motifs, and the third was making changes to the original form of the motifs or change to the whole structure of the carpet design. In continuation of the research, these three methods suggested by the for the designers to use Yalmeh and MinakhaniVaramin carpet motifs in packaging design were presented. In the visual examples, mentioned in the article in all three methods, one sample of carpet motifs and the second sample of the overall structure of carpets were used for packaging.

To reach the aim of the research, the characteristics of the visual principles of Brick-shaped Yalameh and MinakhaniVaramin carpet motifs were investigated. After investigations, it was determined that in these carpets, both in motifs and in the overall structure there were visual principles. Visual values include order, balance, symmetry, proportion, contrast, harmony of positive and negative space, rhythm, emphasis, and concentration. They  existed in all motifs and in the whole structure of the carpets. All of these were the principles and foundations of visual arts. This made it possible to use these motifs in graphics, including the designing of the designs of a suitable package or a creative package. Also, if strong boxes were made for packing goods and handicrafts, it was more likely that they would be kept in people's homes for years.Therefore, a design and pattern with Iranian identity on packaging can be a good advertising example for Iranian handicraft; through repeating Iranian designs and motifs, they could develop Iranian identity.

The analysis of the results confirmed that using and repeating such motifs in packaging of Iranian goods could enhance the national and cultural identity formation due to the affinity Iranian audience feel towards them. For foreign audiences, they are reminiscent of Iranian motifs and designs. Also, a firm and beautiful package can be kept in one’s home as a decorative object for years. Correspondingly, Iranian carpet motifs had the potential to be used in the packaging design in three general and practical ways, including the direct use of designs and motifs, in the combination with other elements or drawings by making changes in the original form, andin creating different designs.

Since its discovery, iron has been considered one of the most valuable and chief factors in changing life and starting the industrial revolution. Since the Median period, covering large wooden doors with tinsmith was common. In the Islamic period, metal connections were only used to increase the strength of the wooden parts of doors and windows; however, nowadays these pieces, with the use of iron doors and windows, are used to decorate the entrance of certain places. lacksmithing(chelengari), as one of the branches of metalworking art that is called KhordeAhangari, was of great importance in the past. Today, this art has been  forgotten due to industrialization of a large part of metal constructions.. Blacksmiths were a group of artisans who turned iron and metal parts in the roasting furnace into various tools by the hammering process.

The method of using iron in buildings is a cultural manifestation and represents a part of Iranian identity. The Qajar era can be seen as the beginning of the substitution of wood with metal in the construction of fences and windows, known as "Gol Nardeh". The purpose of the article is to review the design, the construction, and the techniques used in Tehran's blacksmithing(chelengari)-(fences-windows, doors, and balconies). The questions of this research are as follows: a) what were the methods of designing, constructing and blacksmithing(chelengari) (fences - windows, doors and balconies) in Tehran? b) What types of motifs were used in Tehran's blacksmithing(chelengari) (fences, windows, doors and balconies)? The research method is descriptive and analytical; the purposeful sampling was of the convenient type and obvious cases. Data were collected through field and library studies. For this purpose, one hundred fences-windows, doors, and balconies in houses of Tehran built in the Qajar and Pahlavi periods in the 11th and the 12th districts were identified, photographed, and analyzed.

In the Qajar period, with the influence of western architectural culture and the beginning of extroversion in Iranian architecture, guards with different designs were built on the windows of the exterior of buildings in Tehran. On the other hand, the influence of the Qajar period and European culture on architecture drew attention to urban facades. This caused the simple wooden windows of the houses of the Qajar period to be made with new types of metal fences on the exteriors. Metal fences with a new design were revealed, while  preserving sanctity and creating a veil, which was also common to Iranian architecture -. In the buildings made in Qajar and Pahlavi periods in Tehran, there are various window fences, which show the taste of Tehran fence-making artists. The mentioned cases were influenced by factors known as the new developments in the West in various fields such as: the expansion of trade; the migration of craftsmen and workers to neighboring countries, especially the Caucasus, after the constitutional movement and the change of existing social structure; the familiarity with social classes and privileges; the formation of unions and guilds, the movement of businessmen and intellectuals to Farang (overseas), the dispatch of students to European countries to study, the translation of books and magazines, and new social and cultural contents conveyed through foreign newspapers and pamphlets . Mohammad Shah sent a group of five people to Paris to learn weapon making and sent another group of artisans and apprentices in 1268 AH to learn new industries such as carpentry, blacksmithing, and foundry. In terms of iron-making and blacksmithing (chelengari), Amirkabir dispatched a group to Moscow under the supervision of Haj Mirza Mohammad Tajer of Tabrizi. He also sent Mohammad Ali, the flint-maker, under the supervision of Major Darcy to England to learn lock and key-making techniques. Amirkabir plannedfor Iran's industries by establishing iron-casting, metalwork, cloth weaving factories while hiring technical masters from England and sending Iranian artisans to Russia. With the investigation done on Tehran's railings (fence-window, door, and balcony guard), it was observed that they had an identity root. in terms of usage, they were considered an element of traditional Iranian architecture.

As a result, The findings showed that the design method with the basic form of S with a ratio of 2 units for width and 6 units for length is formed under a pattern with 12 equal squares and spirals with 4 squares divided into 2 units and 6 parts. The applied techniques were divided into four categories of rectangular forms, rectangle with crescent, rectangle with crescent inscription, and rectangle-square. Also, the motifs used in Tehran's chalangri during the Qajar and Pahlavi periods were traditional motifs divided into two categories: one motif and two or more motifs achieved various beautiful shapes with different dimensions by analogy, combination, and multiplication. And each was examined in three types. The common motifs between these two groups were the creations of masters, six long, six Devati, lozenge, sharp drum, five open and eight. The single motif group included motifs such as Sormeh-dan bag and Seli motifs, Giveh and two or more motifs included Sormeh-dan bag motifs, Seli, Torang Kond, Panj Kond, Hexagonal, Torang Tond, Pabarik, Sormh-dan, Tabal, Shesh bandi and Pa bozi motifs. Also, the variety of designs and patterns used in Tehran's changaris in Tasi gave it an identity taken from the motifs of Iranian knots on bricks and wood, especially tile works. According to the experiences gained by master craftsmen, blacksmithing(chelengari) had an evolutionary process and the designs, roles, and forms followed the dimensions and shapes of the windows, doors, and balconies.

Pictorial carpets from the Qajar era represent a novel phenomenon in Iranian carpet artistry, introducing innovation to carpet designing while maintaining a deep-rooted connection with the traditional motifs and the overall structure of Iranian carpets. These carpets  hold a unique position in history of Iranian artistry. For this reason, it is necessary to study and investigate the innovations and creativity they introduced to the tradition of Iranian carpet design, aiming to identify, locate, and illuminate the components and indicators of both national and Iranian identity within the visual elements and themes employed in these carpets. To achieve this goal, the following research questions were posed: a) to what extent do various categories of pictorial carpets from the Qajar period have six dimensions of ‘national identity’? b) How often do different indicators of ‘national identity’ appear in these carpets? c) How are the elements of national identity manifested and reflected in the Qajar pictorial carpets?

The article is fundamental in terms of its purpose and deploys a descriptive-analytical method in terms of its nature. Data analysis was conducted by combining quantitative and qualitative methods. All the available pictorial carpets of the Qajar era were considered as the statistical population of this research, from which a sample of 79 carpets was selected based on specific criteria, including the design and thematic frequencies, originality, and the geographical diversity of the fabric's origin. The data was collected through a thorough review and a content analysis of the 79 carpets. The most prominent visual, semantic, and thematic elements within each group were matched with the components and indicators of national identity. These items were presented in a structured table. Subsequently, the information from tables 3 to 10 was quantitatively summarized in Table 11.

In three groups of Qajar pictorial carpets with the themes of ‘Royal Motif’, ‘Famous Figures’ and ‘Four Seasons’, all six dimensions and indicators of national identity were found. Therefore, it can be affirmed that in terms of referencing and embodying ‘national identity’ and ‘Iranian identity’, these three groups exhibited the most visible and cohesive visual and content representations. The pictorial carpets themed around ‘ancient literature’ follow, encompassing four indicators: ‘social,’ ‘historical,’ ‘cultural,’ and ‘geographical’. However, the carpets which portray symbolic and religious subjects as well as Darvish and Sufism leaders only reference national identity indicators in two dimensions: cultural and religious. On the other hand, those carpets featuring animal motifs, an adaptation of western themes, and female motifs only reflect a single cultural indicator; thus, they subtly allude to national and Iranian identity. Among the six dimensions of national identity, only a cultural dimension has been continuously presented in all eight categories of the Qajar pictorial carpets and has the highest frequency. The most prevalent components within this dimension include appreciating and acknowledging the works and heritage of the past, believing in strengthening and preserving artistic and cultural heritage, and appreciating and revering the Persian language, which has been notably emphasized in many of these carpets. The religious dimension of the national identity existed in the second place and has appeared in five groups with visual and content-based signs. The most prevalent components within this dimension include ‘appreciating and acknowledging the works and heritage of the past, believing in strengthening and preserving artistic and cultural heritage, and appreciating and revering the Persian language. The utilization of Persian calligraphy and poetry to narrate a storyline, depicting the attire and clothing of Iranian communities, employing facial hair styles inspired by ancient stone carvings to depict contemporary characters, and incorporating specific motifs and design styles from various regions and schools of Iranian carpet weaving, all contribute to a rich variety of designs and direct geographical references within the carpets. The use of poets’ images, of ancient and mythological kings, and of historical landmarks presents a positive image of Iranian traditions and culture, evoking a sense of pride and nurturing an interest in Iranian identity and culture. Moreover, integrating religious themes and references affirms the presence of a religious mindset among the populace, further reinforcing the inextricable link between religion and the national identity of Iranians. 

The research findings showed that although pictorial weaving was considered a novel innovation in the Qajar carpet weaving, the careful selection of themes aligned with Iranian culture infused profound and enduring concepts and identity themes. Surveys of the research highlighted that across the eight categories of the Qajar carpets, especially in carpets portraying royal motifs, famous figures, four seasons, and themes drawn from ancient literature, the six dimensions of ‘national identity’ were the most prevalent and visible. The ‘cultural’ and ‘religious’ dimensions of national identity were particularly dominant with the ‘political’ dimension exhibiting the least frequency across these carpets. The elements, components, and indicators of ‘national and Iranian identity’ elegantly emerged within these carpets, showcasing distinct motifs, scripts, and themes from Persian poetry and prose, traditional clothing of Iranian communities, imagery of poets, ancient and mythological kings, and historical landmarks, all of which contributed to presenting a positive image of Iranian traditions and culture, to perpetuating pride in Iranian heritage, and to fostering a deep-rooted connection with Iranian cultural elements. Due to the subject matter, political and social conditions of production, urban weaving or rural weaving, and so on the components of national identity in all the Qajar pictorial carpets appeared in diverse ways. For instance, in four season pictorial carpets or famous figures carpets, all six dimensions of national identity exhibited a vibrant presence, influenced by the unique theme and characterized by a tailored texture. This diversity is distinctly urban. However, in carpets adapted from the Western Themes and female motif, traditional motifs—representative of the identity of Iranian carpets—found their place wherever there was room. Even in these cases, where the theme was entirely Western and non-Iranian, the reflection of the components and elements of Iranian national identity remained intact, underscoring a continuous commitment to the dissemination and representation of Iranian cultural and identity elements.

Inkwells are tools considered in relation to the art of calligraphy. Until now, no study has particularly been done on the metal inkwells of the Metropolitan Museum. Therefore, this study addresses the Iranian metal inkwells, belonging to the 11th-16th centuries AD (5-10 A.H.), in terms of their shape, decorations, and patterns. In the middle centuries, metal inkwells were highly popular and exported to other countries; this fact highlighted their importance and beauty among other Iranian metal works in Islamic era (Shea, 2018, 45). In order to determine the features of these Iranian metal inkwells in terms of shape, decorations, and motifs from the 11th-16th centuries in the Metropolitan Museum, this study first addresses the metalworks of the Seljuk and Safavid eras; then, it identifies and analyzes the common designs and decorations of inkwells in terms of vocabulary, usage, and appearance.

This study examined and compared 6 Iranian metal inkwells preserved in the Metropolitan Museum, belonging to the 11th, 12th, 13th, and 16th centuries (5, 6, 7, and 10 A.H.), with and without lids; most of these works belonged to Khorasan region in terms of shape (the type of lid) and decorations. For this purpose, a brief history of the art of metalworking from the 5th to the 10th centuries AH was provided; the inkwell terminology was extracted from reliable encyclopaedias. Then, the samples were examined in terms of shape and composition of decorative surfaces. Decorative motifs of the inkwells were also examined in terms of plant, animal, geometric, constellation, human figures, and calligraphy categories, including  the use of floral Kufi or Naskh scripts by providing analytical tables and motif frequency diagrams. Data was collected in the form of library and documentary reviews, and images were collected from the website of the Metropolitan Museum.

This study used 6 samples of decoration, including plant motifs, animal motifs, human motifs, constellations, geometric motifs, and calligraphic inscriptions. Plant decorations were the most common, and geometric motifs and constellations were the least common ones. They made use of a  variety of khataei motifs, including round flowers, Shah Abbasid, and leaves along with chiaroscuro or morassae as well as ivy stems and scrolls often leading to animal heads or filling the background with geometric and human elements, constellations, and so on. . Horses, lions, gazelles, rabbits, and wolves were the widely used animal motifs that were placed among geometric frames or within the scroll ivy and arabesques, and in their background.. It was noted that animal motifs were placed in a regular rhythm at certain distances and faces of the inkwells, or they were symmetrical. Geometric motifs included sun and cross (chalipa) motifs and seven circle patterns. Human motifs were depicted in the samples on horseback or in the form of constellation motifs. Constellations were also associated with human and animal motifs due to he conventional illustration method. Calligraphic inscriptions were used on the lower and upper bands of the inkwell as well as on the cover. Additionally, Kufi and Naskh scripts with prayer phrases  for health, dignity, and happiness of the owner of the inkwell were the most common ones. Metal inkwells, used in different periods of Iranian art, indicate the importance of calligraphy in different regions of Iran such as Khorasan and Isfahan. Decorations and motifs, used in the works left from the 12th and 13th centuries AD (Seljuk period), contained mostly plant motifs, despite the flourishing of astronomy in the Seljuk period and by Iranian scientists. In the tradition of carving metal works of the Khorasan School, dense plant motifs, arabesques, decorative ivy in repeated patterns were widely used and filled the space of objects in a balanced, proportionate manner. This tradition waspreserved in the 10th century as well, and the application of Iranian Tasheer and painting patterns-- such as the intertwining of plant-animal motifs and the elegance of carving-- was doubled. The decorative motifs of metal containers such as inkwells reflected best the recorded history of religious customs and beliefs while representing religious and ceremonial celebrations as well as hunting and fighting rituals.

Most of the inkwells were baseless, and the division of the decorative space in the inkwells with domed lid was carved on three levels, but the inkwells without a lid or with a flat lid had only one surface for decoration, on which all the elements were arranged. Therefore, the variety and coherence of motifs were presented more in the dome inkwells. The 6th and 7th century (AH) inkwells all had a connecting ring and plate around their body, but the 10th century (AH) inkwells had a connecting ring on the tip of its dome-shaped lid. Results showed that five inkwells from the 5th to 7th centuries were round or had flat lids with a dome in the centre of the lid, embedded on a short vertical base. Their motifs were mostly plant motifs, followed by human and animal motifs,  calligraphy decorations, and constellations. Two of these constellations were influenced by the astronomy developed in  Khorasan School by Iranian scientists. In the 10th century inkwell, animal motifs and twists of plant motifs were more elegantly and naturalistically drawn, close to the art of Iranian Tasheer.  Also, the shape of the inkwell was based on towers and derived from the architectural patterns of a long cylindrical vertical base and a domed lid, symbolizing the sky. In total, plant decorations were the highest in number and geometric motifs (sun, Chalipa, and the seven circle pattern) as well as the constellations were the least common. Horses, lions, gazelles, rabbits, and wolves were widely used animal motifs that spotted among geometric frames or within the scroll ivy and arabesques. Human motifs were depicted on horseback or in the form of constellations. Calligraphic inscriptions were used on the lower and upper bands of the inkwells and on the lid. Kufi and Naskh scripts were the most used motif in decoration of inkwells.