افسانه نیکوکار

Given to economic sanctions as well as the emphasis of policy makers on the resistance economy and national production, it is important to identify the factors affecting the agricultural growth. One of these factors is banking credit. Despite the relative consensus of economists on the positive impact of banking credit on macroeconomic variables, some of them believe in the difference between the impact of public and private bank lending on economic growth and employment.  Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of banking credit on Iranian agricultural growth sector by considering the role of bank ownership
In this study, the data for the fourth quarter of 1388 (2009) to the first quarter of 1397 (2018) and the MIDAS-GARDL method were used
The results showed that the credit granted by state-owned banks have a greater impact on the growth of the agricultural sector compared to the credit of private banks
 It is suggested that state-owned banks have a greater share in the payment of banking facilities to the agricultural sector.

One of the most important economic policies in most countries is to support producers or consumers through subsidies. The category of green subsidies has been proposed in the direction of agricultural development, which is in line with the law on targeted subsidies, but in a real way. Green subsidies belong to farmers and are used to boost business and industry in the agricultural sector. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of Iran's accession to the World Trade Organization by applying a simulated green subsidy policy on the variables of employment, investment, and value added in the agricultural sector, which is designed in the form of 20%, 50% and 100% scenarios. The model was calibrated using the social accounting matrix of 2011 and the baseline scenario (0% of green subsidies). GAMS software was used to analyze the data in this research. The results show an increase in employment in the agricultural sector during the effects of Iran's accession to the World Trade Organization and by applying the green subsidy simulation policy, in 20, 50 and 100% scenarios. Also, the implementation of green subsidy policy has led to an increase in investment in the agricultural sector.This is  due to the increased production in this sector and as a result, increase in the use of intermediate inputs. The results obtained from the mentioned shocks show that value added in the agricultural sector has an upward trend, which is due to the increase in the use of factors of production in this sector.

Agriculture is one of the most important economic sectors in Iran and its growth is important for food security. Therefore, it is necessary to identify the determinants of agricultural sector. One of these factors is bank credits that provide investment opportunities for entrepreneurs. Some economists believe that the type of bank ownership (public or private) affects the relationship between the variables of bank credit and economic growth. Some of them are in favor of more government intervention and others are against government intervention in the payment of banking facilities. However, in previous domestic studies, the role of bank ownership has rarely been considered. Thus this study aimed at investigating the effect of bank credits on the growth of the agricultural sector with emphasis on the role of bank ownership. For this purpose, ARDL and Fuzzy-ARDL methods as well as quarterly data from winter 2009 to spring 2018 were used. The study findings showed that in Iran, investment enhanced the growth of the agricultural sector, but the increase in labor had a negative effect on it. In addition, the results showed that the facilities granted by state-owned banks were more effective than the facilities of private banks on the growth of the agricultural sector; this finding is in line with the views of the proponents of government intervention in the provision of banking facilities. Therefore, it is suggested that the share of state-owned banks in granting banking facilities to the agricultural sector be higher than that of private banks.For this purpose, the ARDL and Fuzzy-ARDL method is used. The used quarterly data cover winter 2009 to spring 2018. The results show the credit of state banks have more effect on agricultural growth in comparison to the credit of private banks.

One of the most important economic policies in most countries is to support producers or consumers through subsidies; and green subsidies are designed for farmers to achieve the prosperity of business and industry in the agricultural sector. The present study was conducted to investigate the effects of Iran's accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO) by calculating the effects of green subsidy application on farmers' welfare using supply function estimation within a Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) model. Thus, the simulated green subsidy policy in the agricultural sector was designed through 20%, 50% and 100% scenarios and also the model calibration was done using the social accounting matrix of 2011 and the baseline scenario (zero percent of green subsidy applications). In addition, GAMS software was used to analyze the research information. The results showed that during Iran's accession to the World Trade Organization, followed by the implementation of the simulated green subsidy policy, production in the agricultural sector would increase and the prices would decrease while production in industry and services would decrease and the prices would increase. In general, the results of the observed changes indicated an increase in producer welfare in all sectors, with the difference that in the agricultural sector, these changes would be much greater.

Poverty reduction is one of the important goals of development programs. This study was conducted to investigate the factors affecting rural poverty in provinces of Iran during the years 2011-2018. Poverty Gap Index has been calculated as dependent variable. The log- log regression model of influencing factors on poverty was estimated using the cross section weighted least squares method. Results showed that rural poverty has been an unbalanced long- run phenomenon that has grown over time and covered more people. The coefficients of estimated model showed that the share of province in GDP, areas under cultivation, number of rural comprehensive health service centers and dummy variable of less poor provinces have had significant negative effect on poverty. The value added of agriculture sector, rural consumer price index, family size, trend, first lag of dependent variable and dummy variable of poorer provinces have had significant positive effect on poverty gap index. The negative effect of the share of province in GDP and areas under cultivation on poverty confirmed the important role of production infrastructures and economic opportunities in poverty reduction. Significant positive effect of the value added of agriculture sector can be an evidence of small contribution of villagers in value added of this sector. Based on the results of this study, it is suggested to avoid the concentration of investment, resources and production opportunities in richer provinces and to pay attention to balanced regional development to reduce poverty in poor provinces. Also anti-inflationary policies will reduce poverty in all regions. Since poverty has been a long-run and growing phenomenon in most regions, long- run planning in production and welfare infrastructures is needed to eradicate poverty.

Supportive policies on wheat crops to achieve food security have always been considered by the concerned policy-makers, but only in the short term. The Iranian governments subsidize wheat consumption within a framework of the Affordable Food Policy as well as the supportive pricing policies, subsidizing production inputs, and insurance for wheat production. Presently, the government is also the sole buyer and seller of wheat in the country. This study aimed at evaluating the government policies in the wheat market during 2000-2016, considering the continuity and increasing costs of support programs for wheat producers and consumers. For this purpose, the modeling results showed that the supply and demand elasticity values in Iran market were invalid and had to be evaluated using a model error. The economists might only use supply and demand elasticity values with low errors to model the welfare and an acceptable market situation; otherwise, based on model error, welfare calculations, or production and consumption losses would be invalid. For solving this problem, a new model based on the complicated Iran market was investigated, analyzed and verified.

The purpose of this study was identifying the factors affecting Mashhad Citizens’ willingness to pay for herbal teas. Data was gathered through a survey method and completing 368 questionnaires by simple random sampling among citizens of Mashhad in spring and summer of 2017. In order to identify the factors affecting consumers' willingness to pay, the Contingent Valuation Method and Ordered Logit Model were used. Data analysis showed that 50 percent of consumers were willing to purchase 5 to 25 percent additional cost for buying these products. The results of estimated model showed that household income, awareness about health benefits, packaging, lack of essence, supply type, existence of information labels, gender female and consumers’ education level, have positive and significant effects, and age, family size, quality, processing and price of herbal teas have had negative and significant effects on willingness to pay for herbal teas. About 23 percent of the respondents have known the lack of knowledge about the uses of herbal teas and 21 percent of them have known the lack of knowledge about the health benefits of herbal teas as the most important problems for the consumption of herbal teas. According to the results, considering appropriate supply and packaging with information label, and publication brochures to inform consumers about health benefits and uses of herbal teas, can increase willingness to pay and more correct consumption of herbal teas.

Optimal use of energy inputs and increasing productivity of energy lead to less production costs, less greenhouse gas emission also, less negative effects of agricultural inputs on the environment. This study aims to examine the energy balance of sugar beet production in Iran and compares the economic and environmental dimensions of expanding sugar beet production. For this purpose, production function of sugar beet was estimated using Panel data of five provinces of Hamedan, Kermanshah, Khorasan Razavi, Fars and West Azerbaijan for 2000-2015 period. Results showed that the highest energy inputs are chemical fertilizer, machinery and labor, respectively. Also, with a net energy gain of about 643 GJ, 23.53 energy ratio and 1.4 MJ/Kg energy productivity, an increase in sugar beet production is desirable in viewpoint of energy balance. The estimated Cobb- Douglas production function showed that only machinery and farmyard manure were used in the economic range. The MPPs of two inputs of machinery and farmyard manure were higher than other inputs. Also, an increase in sugar beet yield using these two inputs causes less CO2 emission. The significant coefficient of Dummy variable showed that the yield of sugar beet in Fars and Khorasan provinces is significantly lower than other provinces. The sum of the significant coefficients of the energy inputs indicated a decreasing returns to scale. Based on the results of this study, expanding mechanized cultivation and optimal use of monogram seeds, also, reducing subsidies and realizing the price of chemical fertilizers to reduce the use of this input are suggested.

The concept of low-carbon economy postulates the consumption of less natural resources and causing less environmental pollution, while gaining more economic efficiency. According to the concept of lowcarbon economy, low carbon agriculture is a specific model of agricultural production operations with both the lowest greenhouse gas emissions and maximum economic benefits having which has three characteristics including lower energy consumption, lower greenhouse gas emissions and lower pollution. Therefore, this research studies the approaches to low-carbon agriculture in Iran

In this research, energy consumption and consequently economic growth, which is expected to play a role in carbon emissions, other macroeconomic variables such as trade openness and financial development have been used. The estimated model of the research is linear-logarithmic based on Shahzad et al (2017). For this purpose, the ARDL and ECM patterns and the time series data of 1989-2014 have been used in current study. The data related to carbon dioxide emissions and energy consumption have been collected from the energy balance sheet of the Ministry of Energy, The data related to financial development have been collected from World Bank, Value Added of agriculture section Growth Ratio and Trade Openness data have been gathered from Central Bank of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Eviews9 software has been used to analyze the results.

Statistically significant impact of energy consumption logarithm and energy consumption logarithm square on carbon dioxide emissions at the level of 1% in the long run has been revealed by the results. The positive amount of energy consumption and negative amount of the square of energy consumption indicates a U-shaped inverted relationship between energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions. The energy consumption threshold in the agricultural sector is 46.98 million barrels of crude oil, while the actual maximum energy consumption is 50.26 million barrels of crude oil. So the agricultural sector's performance is now above the mentioned level, then it is expected to reduce carbon emissions by technological improvements while increasing energy consumption. The coefficient of financial development variable in the long run is -0.014169. The financial development efficiency index is considered as national development variable which means each one percent of increase in bank credits allocated to the private sector will reduce about 1.02 ton of carbon dioxide. The coefficient of trade openness variable is 0.010443 in long run. Whereas the trade openness index is considered as the ratio of the total value of exports and imports to gross domestic product, so every one percent increase in the volume of exchanges to gross domestic product leads to a 1.01 ton increase in carbon dioxide and pollution which confirms the hypothesis. The growth rate of value added of agriculture section in the long run does not have any effect on carbon dioxide emissions. In the short run, the coefficient of trade openness is 0.00581. In other words, one percent increase in the ratio of international trade to GDP will increase about one ton of carbon dioxide emissions. The growth rate of value added of agriculture section, financial development, and the first lag of financial development in short run have no effect on carbon dioxide emissions.

The results indicated a long-term U-shaped inverted relationship between carbon emissions and energy consumption in this sector. The maximum energy consumption threshold was also equivalent to 46.98 billion barrels of crude oil. At present, performance of the sector is on downward, and carbon emissions are expected to gradually decrease by the technological improvement as energy consumption increases. Higher level of the energy consumption than the threshold level indicates that technology effect dominates the scale and composition effects. The results shows that the growth rate of value added of agriculture section in long and short run did not affect carbon emissions. Moreover, in the long run, financial development has negative effect on carbon emissions while in the short run financial development has no effect on carbon emissions. But the effect of trade openness index on carbon emissions in the long and short run is positive. According to the results of the study, increasing the volume of credits to the private sector will help reduce carbon emissions. It is also proposed to change the pattern of trade considering the environmental advantages and the use of green energy programs to reduce carbon emissions.

Welfare is one of the important socioeconomic subjects presented in texts related to economy. Welfare provision is one of the most important purposes in any economic system; offering proper living conditions for the entire strata of societies is considered as the major duty of governments. To achieve such a goal, governments employ different tools; in this regard, granting subsidies is an important way of income transfer, supporting low-income strata, fair distribution of income, and a means for improving the efficiency of poverty mitigation programs and other plans for providing social support to vulnerable strata. Such a strategy could only achieve said purposes if it is regulated and governments are obligated to execute it. Despite how granting cash subsidies was predicted to increase the benefits and welfare of low-income strata, particularly in rural communities, it appears to be unexpectedly worsening the welfare of such strata due to inflation growth and a rise in the price of essential goods and food, which constitute a major share of expenses of low-income households. By drawing a link between cash subsidies and welfare indices, it has been attempted in the present study to evaluate and assess the degree of effectiveness of cash subsidies on the welfare of rural families and recommend a set of suitable strategies for future policy-making. The relation between social welfare level and how resources are allocated to various sections of a society is determined by the social welfare function. The social welfare function depends on the desirability achieved by each and every individual in the society; yet individuals are unaware of the extent of their own desirability as well as others’, recognizing solely the effective factors on their own welfare. Social welfare could be analyzed through different dimensions and could be calculated using various methods. In this regard, using methods such as social welfare functions, supply and demand functions, consumer and producer’s surplus calculation, and employing socioeconomic welfare indices and criteria are methods used in various studies to calculate welfare. Given the structure of data (unbalanced panel data) in this study as well as the presence of a system involving three equations with simultaneous correlation between their components compromising the test, an econometric model for seemingly irrelevant systems with unbalanced panel was used. Indices including daily calorie and protein intake was used to measure family welfare. Furthermore, to calculate the annual income of rural families, profits gained from selling produced goods during a year are added to none-agricultural incomes such as rent and accumulated deposit interests, together with cash subsidies received. The required information for the study were collected from rural families’ expense and income detailed plans laid out by the Statistical Center of Iran during 2010-12 in Khorasan Razavi province. The results of the study showed that a set of factors such as the level of literacy, type of activities, costs of food, and areas under cultivation involved positive impact on welfare indices; nonetheless, factors such as subsidies and the number of household members were of negative effects on food security indices and a positive effect on the whole income index. Since the costs of food and general income are components affecting welfare indices including calorie and protein intake, the results showed that 1% increase in the costs of food would increase 0.15 and 0.34% of calorie and protein intake, respectively; moreover, 1% rise in the general income has increased 0.09 and 0.11% of households’ calorie and protein intake, respectively. Despite cash subsidies increasing the general income of rural households, yet not only this variable has had no positive impact on food security indices, i.e. calorie and protein intake, but also has led to their decline. In this regard, 1% increase in received cash subsidies would reduce 0.02 and 0.07% calorie and protein intake, respectively. Although cash subsidies have insignificantly increased the general income of households, it has practically reduced the purchasing power and real incomes of families due to rise in market liquidity and inflation. Considering the subject of food security as one of the most important issues related to welfare provision in any society nowadays and given the emphasis of the fourth economic, social, and cultural development plan regulation of Iran on providing 29g of protein to every individual daily, its recommended that the Iranian government revise granting cash subsidies; in this regard, the government could consider a subsidies system for goods and essential food items for families so as to achieve subsidy targeting as well as increasing the welfare of rural families.

The first step in any planning is recognition of the actual condition and the main tool to know the present situation and move towards to the ideal conditions is the access to data and information. This study, tried to study fish consumption status and identify the factors affecting it in Sari and Mashhad Cities.
Data was collected through interviews and questionnaire and were analyzed using ordered Logit model. Often dependent variables are ordinal, but are not continuous in the sense that the metric used to code the variables is substantively meaningful. A widely used approach to estimating models of this type is an ordered response model, which almost allows employing the Logistic link function. This model is thus often referred to as the "ordered Logit" model. The central idea is that there is a latent continuous metric underlying the ordinal responses observed by the analyst. Thresholds divides the real line into a series of regions corresponding to the various ordinal categories. The latent continuous variable, y* is a linear combination of some predictors, x, plus a disturbance term that has a standard Logistic distribution. Similar to the models for binary data, we are concerned with how changes in the predictors translate into the probability of observing a particular ordinal outcome. In this model, the dependent variable is divided to different classes. Coefficients cannot be interpreted directly; so for evaluating the effect of independent variables on the dependent variable, marginal effect or marginal probability is calculated. independent variables are: Family size, Age, Price of fish, Price of meat, Price of chicken, Education, The number of people under 10 years, The number of people with specific diseases, The number of elderly, Income level, Job, Factor related to taste, Factors related to the access and ease of preparation of fish, Factors related to preparation and cook and Factors related to aquatic health.
Households, based on the frequency of buying aquatic (fish, shrimp and canned), are divided into four groups: households with no annual, monthly and weekly consumption of aquatic. So we ran order Logit model for these groups. Pseudo R2 Shows that the order Logit model has a high level of goodness of fit, and the independent variables used in the models explain 12% and 14% variations in the probability of Mashhadian and Saravian households at different levels of consumption. The value of the χ2 statistic in Wald test also indicates the significance of the whole regression. The estimated results of ordered Logit model showed that variables of the number of children under 10 years, the number of people with specific diseases, the number of elderly and income level have the positive impact on fish consumption in Sari. Variables of residential area and the number of children under 10 years have a positive impact on fish consumption in Mashhad. In other words, increasing these variables, increases the probability of fish consumption in these cities. Age has the negative impact on fish consumption in Sari. Also, factors associated with taste, factors related to lack of knowledge of preparation and cooking aquatic and factors related to the health of aquatics have a negative impact on fish consumption in Mashhad. This means that increasing these variables, puts households at lower levels of fish consumption. In such a way, the habitat of coastal towns towards non-coastal cities, reduces the probability of households to be in the low-level of aquatic consumption. This is due to the lower price of fish in coastal cities and access to fresh fish in these cities. The likelihood of Mashhadian households in the low-levels (no use) of aquatic consumption was reduced by 0.308 and increases the probability of households in annual, monthly and weekly of aquatic consumption, with increase in the residential area level by 0.091, 0.192 and 0.025 respectively. The likelihood of Sarian households in high- level of aquatic consumption (weekly and monthly) was increase by 0.120 and 0.395, with increase in the number of people with specific diseases, respectively. Increasing the income level of households also reduces the probability of Sarian households in the low-level (no use) of aquatic consumption group by about 0.0000006.
This study aimed to identify the factors affecting fish consumption in Sari and Mashhad Cities. For this purpose, data was collected through interviews and questionnaire and were analyzed using ordered Logit model. The estimated results of ordered Logit model showed that variables of the number of children under 10 years, the number of people with specific diseases, the number of elderly and income level have a positive impact on fish consumption in Sari. However, variables of residential area and the number of children under 10 years have a positive impact on fish consumption in Mashhad. In other words, increasing these variables, increases the probability of fish consumption in these cities. But factors associated with taste, factors related to lack of knowledge of preparation and cooking aquatic and factors related to the health of aquatics have the negative impact on fish consumption in Mashhad. Based on the results, holding the training classes of fish cooking for enthusiasts and creation of aquatics Markets to supply of aquatic have been proposed.

Designing and implementing temperature-humidity index insurance is a proper risk management tool that can lower animal breeder loss against heat stress and can lead to their income stability. Given this important issue in the present study, this insurance system has been designed for dairy cattle production in Damavand County. The required data were collected monthly from Damavand County’s agricultural and meteorological organizations in a time span ranging between 2012 and 2016. Given the flexibility of copula approach and its high accuracy in measuring dependency structure, this method was employed to account for joint distribution function and to measure expected loss. The results indicated that a strong dependency exists between dairy cow yield and temperature-humidity index, and this dependency can be better explicated through negative rotating Clayton index than any other copulas. The premium amount for each dairy cow has been calculated as 610650 Rials at 100 percent coverage level. Additionally, the expected loss resulted from heat stress at the 100 percent coverage level has been calculated as 42 kilograms within a month for each dairy cow. Considering the total number of dairy cows in the town, i.e. 2207 cows, the total loss resulted from heat stress has been calculated as 92694 kilograms and over 1.2 billion Rials within a month. With regard to the great loss resulted from heat stress and the importance of milk in the health of societies, it is recommended that the officials and policy-makers devote a particular attention to designing this insurance system throughout country.

Production of healthy food products is one of the most important goals of sustainable development of agriculture and society health. Awareness about the behavior of consumers is important to ensure about profitability of production of healthy food products. This study is done to investigate the factors affecting consumer's willingness to pay for chicken without antibiotics in Mashhad. Required data is gathered by random sampling and completing questionnaires from 340 households in 2014-2015. Contingent valuation method and estimating ordered logit model are used to identify the factors affecting consumer's willingness to pay. Results showed that about 19 percent of consumers would not to pay additional amount for buying chicken without antibiotics compared with conventional chicken and 6 Percent willing to pay a premium price were less than 5%. While 55% of people were willing to pay 15 percent additional amount and 20% of them were willing to pay 30% additional amount for buying chicken without antibiotics compared with conventional chicken. Among the studied variables, income of household, education, awareness about characteristics of chicken without antibiotics, health care index, amount of chicken consumption, the number of family members and people who are sensitive to a variety of antibiotics in family have had significant positive effect on willingness to pay for chicken without antibiotics. Also price of chicken without antibiotics has had significant negative effect on dependent variable. Age and gender had have no significant effect on willingness to pay. 29% of respondents have believed high price is the most important problem and 27% of them have believed the absence of proper advertising is the most important problem to buy this product. According to the results, advertising in public media to increase consumers’ awareness and subsidy payments for production and consumption of this product are suggested.

In integrated markets, price shocks in one market are answered in the other markets. Under these conditions, price differences of homogenous commodities in various markets arise from transit costs. Survey of spatial price transmission is one of the methods for studying market integration. With this point of view, spatial price transmission process of pistachio is studied in threshold price transmission models framework. Threshold price transmission models from producer province (Kerman) to consumer provinces (the other provinces of Iran) were estimated by using monthly retail price index data of pistachio for March 2007 to February 2013 period. The results showed that there is positive asymmetric price transmission in the most provinces of country in short-run and marketing agents gain extra benefits and consumers loss from different speed of market integration when price decreases compared with when price increases. But at the whole, markets are integrated in long-run and there is no long-run asymmetric price transmission. With attention to the almost competitive structure of pistachio market at retail level, asymmetric price transmission probably arise from inflation, inventory management, adjustment costs and asymmetric information. Thus, ant inflation policies, assembling market information systems and creating stock market help to the symmetric price transmission and more integrated markets.

Population growth and the needs for protein and dairy products has urged policy makers to pay attention to efficiency policies in the livestock sector. The objective of this study is to survey the factors affecting the income of milk production، to calculate cattlemen’s technical efficiency and to determine the factors affecting the technical efficiency in the Northern Khorasan province. The required data for this study is a balanced panel data and has been obtained by using cluster sampling method and questionnaire completion from 160 dairy farms of this province between the years 2009 and 2012. The Cobb - Douglas function was used to analyze the factors affecting the income of milk production. The Stochastic production frontiers (SPF) and stochastic distance frontiers (SDF)، with and without inclusion of inefficiency effects، were used to measure the technical efficiency and to determine the factors affecting technical efficiency. The stochastic production frontiers (SPF)، with and without the inclusion of inefficiency effects، estimated the average technical efficiency 0/96 and 0/93. In addition، the experience، targeting subsidies and main job of cattleman have a significant positive impact on the technical efficiency. The results showed that the numbers of cattle، land، and investment in equipments، labor and feed costs have significant positive impact on the income of milk production. The stochastic distance frontiers (SDF)، with and without the inclusion of inefficiency effects، estimated the average technical efficiency 0/91 and 0/94، respectively. The experience، targeting subsidies and main job of cattleman have a significant positive impact on the technical efficiency. The numbers of cattle، land، and investment in equipment، labor، feed and veterinary costs have significant positive impact on the income of the milk production. According to the results، high educations and extension classes، farm industrialization، increasing number of cattle، farm specialization and providing a better feed and hygienic conditions are recommended for more efficiency and increasing production in the dairy farms of the Northern Khorasan province.

Spatial price transmission is interpreted to assess the degree of convergence of markets and reduce functional impairment of markets and transaction costs. Because of the importance of saffron as a major agricultural export and concentration of producers in Khorasan province and distribution of consumers throughout the country، the objective of this study is to investigate the spatial transmission of saffron price in various provinces of Iran. Data of monthly retail prices of saffron for 2006-2012 and threshold error correction model were used to estimate price spatial transmission patterns between Khorasan and other provinces in the country. Results of the study revealed that there was a positive price asymmetry among most of provinces. Price transmission coefficients showed that in the short term، price reduction at the retail level are transmitted faster to other markets compare to price increment. In the long term، deviations from equilibrium moderated and markets were converging. Efforts to improve conditions for producers through establishment of cooperatives، and strengthening the role of commodity exchange market to increase farmers bargaining power and lowering the role of brokers in the market seems to be necessary.

In order to investigate measures of animal protein supply during the fourth Five-Year Development Plan in Iran, supply functions of meat, milk and fish and supply system of chicken and egg were respectively estimated applying ordinary least square and seemingly unrelated regressions methods. Results showed that meat supply is almost inelastic with respect to the last year price, custom tariffs, supply of meat and price of animal feed and current year supply of feed and its custom tariff. The results were similar for milk. Moreover, the most important factor on chicken supply was its last year price. Last year price of egg and feed supply were the most important factors on egg supply as well.Furthermore, supply of fish was directly determined by its price, and custom tariff, investment in fishery and its last year supply, and by wage labor inversely. Also, results showed that changes in different strategies influence supply of different products intensely.

The objective of this study is evaluation of government’s optimum combination of policy instruments on per capita consumption of bread and the share of this product in food cost of families in different income classes. The minimization of changes in dead weight loss function is used in this study. By using boot strop method and on base of normal distribution for supply elasticity and demand elasticity, statistical properties of optimum combination of the policy instruments and the welfare outcomes were analyzed. The results of the welfare outcomes in wheat market show that government protects consumers more than producers by using consumption subsidy and guarantee price simultaneously. The optimizations of governments’ policy in wheat market reduce governments’ cost and dead weight loss by reduction in protection from consumers. Results also show that per capita consumption and the share of bread in food cost of families change considerably after using optimum combination policy instruments and the effect of using optimum combination policy instruments on the share of bread in food cost of rural families is more than urban families and for low income classes is more than high income classes.

Price transmission is one of the most important factors that affects the producers, consumers and marketing agents’ welfare. Market structure affects price transmission. Asymmetric price transmission affects the marketing margin, increases marketing agents’ profit and decreases producers and consumers’ welfare. In recent years high prices of beef has caused consumers’ dissatisfaction however, producers have gained not more than 40 percent of retail prices. Asymmetric price transmission is one of the reasons that increases marketing margin and may arise from non-competetive market structure. The objective of this paper is to analyze market structure and the impact of price transmission on marketing margin. To achieve this objective, first;structure, conduct and performance of beef market were analyzed and then marketing margin model was estimated for the 1377-87 period. The results revealed that the share of beef in red meat production has increased but inappropriate spread of slaugther-houses and existence of a large number of middlemen in marketing chain have ended up with non-competitive structure, increasing marketing margin and reduction of beef producers and consumers’ welfare. The results of estimating marketing margin showed that price transmission and marketing cost transmission in Iranian beef market were asymmetric, causing the increase in marketing margin.

Asymmetric price transmission through extending marketing margin generates rents for marketing and processing agents and affects the consumers’ welfare. Because of this reason, price transmission analysis in agricultural markets is important both in economical and political aspects. This paper conducted with the aim of analyzing price transmission in Iranian chicken market. In this study, using weekly data for farm and retail prices for chicken during 1381-1388 and Threshold Model, price transmission analysis is done. Results show that price transmission in Iranian chicken market is asymmetric and farm price increases transmit to the ratail level more and faster than price decreases. Also, market adjustment policy has not had any significant effect on price fluctuations. We believe that asymmetric price transmission in Iranian chicken market is generated for the reason of high inflation rates and non-competitive structure and existence of market power in slaughtering industry. Thus, we suggest government to choose protection policies concerning private sector for investing on slaughtering industry in those provinces that have insufficiency slaughtering capacity.

Evaluation of agricultural policies is an important issue in agricultural economics literature. Economists evaluate policies on base of their welfare effects. The objective of this study is Outcome subsidies removing for wheat and bread and its effect on producers and consumers. The minimization of changes in welfare loss is used in this study. The results of the welfare outcomes in wheat market show that government protects consumers more than producers by using consumption subsidy and guarantee price simultaneously. The optimizations of governments’ policy in wheat market reduce governments’ cost and welfare loss by reduction in protection from consumers. The results of optimization in wheat market policies shows that government costs and loss of social participation through lowering the main consumer protection were reduced. Per capita consumption of bread and share the cost of household food costs after adopting the optimum level of policy tools will dramatically change and optimal level of policy decisions on the bread cost share of rural household is more than urban households

Analysis of agricultural commodities prices is important both from economical and political aspects. Asymmetrical price transmission will cause increase in marketing margin and profit for marketing agents. This study aims to consider price transmission in Iranian chicken Industry. By, using weekly data of farm, slaughter-house and retail prices during 1381-1384, price transmission model is estimated for chicken. Results show that price transmission in all chicken marketing levels is symmetry in the long run. From farm to slaughter-house and from farm to retail level is asymmetry in the short run. Elasticity of price transmission showed that increase in farm price transmits to retail level with stronger effects. For those reason consumers pay higher price and marketing agents get profit due to price fluctuation. Thus government could decrease price fluctuations and increase consumer’s welfare by regulating the market. A government body by buying chicken and selling them in the market could improve the situation. Developing the slaughter facilities through out the country could decrease slaughter-house market power.