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Silybum marianum L. is a plant belonging to the Asteraceae family. An medicinal plant that is native to the Mediterranean, with a large distribution in warm and dry areas. In recent years, good progress has been made in the cultivation of medicinal plants and the development of the pharmaceutical industry. Application of chemical fertilizers results in environmental pollution and ecological damage. Nitrogen fertilizer is the most widely used nutrient required for plants Which can affect plant yield. Therefore, the proper time to use this fertilizer can increase the yield and reduce the environmental destructive effects. Due to the inappropriate use of chemical fertilizers and the environmental destructive effects of these fertilizers, the application of biological fertilizers and environmental protection is essential. Among bio-fertilizers, Phosphate Soluble Microorganisms, including mycorrhizal fungi, are of great importance. According to the above mentioned, the purpose of this experiment was to investigate the effect of chemical, organic fertilizers and Bio-fertilizer as well as to determine the best time of nitrogen fertilizer use on quantitative and qualitative traits of Silybum marianum L.

Experiment was carried out during 2015 - 16 and 2016 - 17 in two season years. The experiment was carried out as factorial layout based on a randomized complete blocks in a factorial arrangement having 18 treatments in 3 replications. In this research, two factors were evaluated: Experimental treatments consisted of different types of fertilizers (organic, biological and chemical) and nitrogen fertilizer use time. First factor, types of fertilizers include 1.vermicompost (20 ton. ha-1), 2. Mycorrhizal fungi (3.5 g Soil with mycorrhiza for each plant), 3. Pseudomonas bacteria (2 g bacteria for 1 kg of seed), 4. Phosphorus fertilizer of triple super phosphate ( 80kg . ha-1), 5. Phosphorus fertilizer of triple super phosphate (100kg. ha-1) together with a control (without consuming any kind of fertilizer) and the second factor was considered three times of nitrogen fertilizer application (Stem growth, pre-flowering and before filling the grain). Phosphorus fertilizer, vermicompost, Pseudomonas bacteria and Mycorrhizal fungi were used at the time of cultivation. The plant height, Capitol number per plant, Diameter capitol main, Diameter sub capitol, Dry weight main capitol, Dry weight sub capitol, Number of seeds per main capitol, Number of seeds per sub capitol, 1000 seeds weight, Grain yield, Silybin yield were studied in this study. The amount of silybin in this plant was also measured by HPLC.

Most of the studied characteristics in this experiment showed better response to mycorrhizal fungi and Pseudomonas bacteria than other treatments. The results showed that the application of mycorrhizal fungi during application of nitrogen fertilizer before flowering except diameter and dry weight of capitol in the other traits were positive compared to control treatment and other treatments. Mycorrhiza enhances the number of Capitols per plant and the number of seeds per Capitols, which are part of the Silybum marianum L. yield components, which ultimately increased the amount of Silybin in the mycorrhizal treatments and when using nitrogen before flowering and before filling the grain. In the treatment of mycorrhiza and Pseudomonas whit using nitrogen elongation stem growth was observed maximum plant length.In the studied traits, Pseudomonas was shown positive effect, but did not have a significant effect on silybin content compared to mycorrhiza.

When nitrogen fertilizer is used in mycorrhiza treatments before flowering has a positive effect on the yield components and ultimately the yield as well as the amount of active Compounds the silybin in Silybum marianum L.Keywords: Silybin, Phosphorus, Silybum Marianum, , mycorrhizal fungi

Saffron (Crocus sp.), is widely used in the food industry and is used as a flavoring and natural coloring agent. A comparative evaluation of the antioxidant activity in the stamen, as well as the effective and medicinal material of crocin in stigma in the agronomic species of saffron (C. sativus) in comparison with the native wild species of C. speciosus and C. caspius collected from Guilan province, were the main objectives of this study. The results of this study showed that the medicinal material of crocin in the stigma of C. speciosus and C. caspius with a significant difference was more than C. sativus, but the amount of crocin in the stamen of C. sativus with a significant difference was more than C. speciosus and C. caspius. The results of the present study also showed that the amount of total phenol and also the amount of the antioxidant activity (DPPH) in the stamen of C. sativus was significantly higher than the two species of C. speciosus and C. caspius, but the amount of flavonol in C. speciosus and C. caspius was significantly higher than C. sativus. Due to the fact that until now, the saffron stamen was considered as unusable part of saffron, according to the results of this study, the high level of antioxidant activity as well as the medicinal composition of crocin in the stamen of saffron, in addition to stigma, in the agronomic and wild species of saffron, this part of saffron has significant potential as a rich source of antioxidants, enriching peoplechr food baskets and in a variety of pharmaceutical and food programs.

Inflammation and oxidative related disorders consist the most important public health threating diseases. This study investigates the fatty acid and sterol contents of E. caucasicum and C. platycarpos, which are part of the nutrition culture of the Caspian region. Their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potentials are also tested with regard to preparing supplemental foods. The fatty acid and sterol contents are quantified by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC MS), and are identified by comparison to standard components. All fractions were tested for free radical scavenging properties with respect to 1, 1-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), phosphomolybdenum, 2, 2’-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline)-6-sulphonic acid radical cation(ABTS), cupric ion reducing activity (CUPRAC), Ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), and metal chelating activity on ferrous ions methods. Furthermore, the anti-inflammatory activity of the fatty acid and sterol fractions of E. caucasicum and C. platycarpos were assayed by the human red blood cell (HRBC) membrane stabilization method. The total oil content of these plants was 18.21% and 7.39%, respectively, with E. caucasicum yielding a higher percentage of oil. Stigmastanol (21.35%) and β-sitosterol (12.19%) constituted the predominant sterols in E. caucasicum and C. platycarpos, respectively.

Salinity tolerance threshold of fruit crops is obtained based on the reduction in yield under saline conditions compared to non-saline conditions. In order to determine salinity tolerance threshold and yield reduction per unit increase in soil salinity in selected almond genotypes, a factorial experiment was carried out. The study was based on completely randomized design (CRD), with two factors: (1) genotypes in 11 types (Tuono, Nonpareil, Mamaei, Shokoufeh, Sahand, Shahrood12, A200,1-25, 1-16 and 13-40 budded on GF677 rootstock, and GF677 rootstock (without budding as control), and (2) salinity of irrigation water at five levels (0.5, 2.5, 4.9, 7.3 and 9.8 dSm-1). At the end of experiment, salinity tolerance threshold and yield reduction slope were calculated based on dry weight (biomass).The results showed that the type and combination of rootstock and scion affect the salinity tolerance threshold and yield reduction slope. The lowest salinity tolerance threshold was observed in 1-16 (2.22 dS/m), Mamaei (2.28 dS/m), and Sahand (2.39 dS/m) genotypes, respectively. On the contrary, the highest salinity tolerance threshold was observed in Shokoufeh (5.80 dS/m), Shahrood12 (4.84 ds/m) and 1-25 (4.80 ds/m).The highest yield reduction slope was observed in 13-40 (8.05%), A200 (7.86%), and Nonpareil (7.55%) genotypes, respectively. In contrast, the lowest yield reduction slope was observed in Shahrood 12 (5.60%). Overall, the results showed the level of salinity that reduced the yield by 50% in Shahrood 12, Shokoufeh, and 1-25, were 5.05, 4.43 and 3.55 dS/m greater than GF677 rootstock (without budding), respectively. EC50 in Shahrood 12, Shokoufeh, 1-25 and GF677 was observed in salinity intensity of 13.23, 12.59, 11.71 and 8.16 dS/m. It should be noted that in previous studies, 100% decrease in yield was reported by salinity level of 7 dS/m, while in Shahrood 12 and Shokoufeh cultivars budded on GF677 rootstock, we observed only 12% and 9% yield reduction by salinity of 7 dS/m. Therefore, we suggest that Shahrood 12 and Shokoufeh cultivars budded on GF677 rootstock could be cultivated in areas with moderate salinity.

Scion-rootstock combination and level of salinity affect on the biochemical characteristics of almond cultivars. To evaluate the effect of salinity stress on the biochemical reactions of almond cultivars and genotypes, a factorial experiment was carried out based on completely randomized design (CRD). Treatments included two factors: Factor A: genotypes in four levels (‘Shokofeh’,‘Sahand’ cultivars, and ‘13-40’ genotype budded on GF677 rootstock, and GF677 (without budding)), and Factor B: irrigation water salinity in five levels (0.5, 2.5, 4.9, 7.3 and 9.8 dS/m) .Total phenolic, antioxidant capacity, soluble carbohydrate, non-soluble carbohydrate, proline, total soluble proteins, hydrogen peroxide, malondialdehyde, other aldehydes, enzymes activity of catalase, ghayacol peroxidase and ascorbat peroxidase were measured at the end of the experiment. Results showed that, in all genotypes, with increasing salinity level (up to 9.8 dS/m) the content of hydrogen peroxide, malondialdehyde and other aldehydes was increased. Also, the content of total phenolics, antioxidant capacity, soluble carbohydrate, proline, total soluble proteins, enzymes activity of catalase, ghayacol peroxidase and ascorbat peroxidase were higher at the lower salinity levels (2.5 and 4.9 ds/m), but their contents were reduced in higher salinity levels. Overall, the highest content of soluble proteins, enzymes activity of catalase, ghayacol peroxidase and ascorbat peroxidase were recorded at salinity level of 7.3 dS/m, and the highest content of total phenolics, antioxidant capacity, soluble carbohydrate and prolin at salinity level 9.8 dS/m were observed in ‘Shokofeh’ cultivar. Also, at salinity levels of 7.3 and 9.8 dS/m, the lowest content of hydrogen peroxide, malondialdehyde, other aldehydes, and total non-soluble carbohydrate were observed in ‘Shokofeh’ cultivar. Finally, ’Shokofeh’ and ’Sahand’ budded on GF677 rootstock were recognized as the most tolerant and sensitive cultivars to salinity, respectively.

The experiment was carried out on 560 half sib and full sib hybridsof apple during 2014-2015. This study was conducted on 6 and 7 year-old plants in Seed and Plant Improvement Research Institute, Iran. The program related to composed of 7000 seedlings made by 44 cross combinations (2004-2005) based on morphological marker technique in 2006-2007. The plants were grown in the hybrid orchard obtained through a large screening program to select early and mid-early hybrids. In this study, some important quantitative and qualitative pomological traits were evaluated and genotypes were classified into three groups using cluster analysis based on measured traits. In estimation of correlation between phenological traits, there were no significance relationships between yield per tree and growth vigor, period of flowering, flowering density, ripening time and height of tree, but yield had significance and positive correlation with percent of fruit abscission. Flowering density had no significant effect on some phenological traits. In estimation of heritability of some important traits, the highest and lowest general heritability were from yield and period of flowering (64.10% and 5.75%, respectively). General heritability of early ripening was 41.15 percent.

Olive (Olea europaea L.) is an evergreen tree، traditionally cultivated in the Mediterranean area. Olive tree cultivation is curtailed in cold areas because they can rarely tolerate temperatures at and below -12°C. In recent years، because of high demands for olive oil and its fruit، the cultivation of olive trees has been increased in Iran. To investigate the impact of cold stress on the content of total phenol، antioxidant activity and three major phenolic compounds including oleuropein، hydroxyl tyrosol and tyrosol and also phenylalanine ammonialyase (PAL) activity، one-year old olive cultivars of Sevillana and Frantoio were exposed to low temperatures of 10، 5، 0، -5، -10، -15، -20 and control 20°C for 12 h، gradually. The results indicated that total phenol content، antioxidant activity and PAL activity were increased under cold stress in both investigated cultivars. However، PAL activity in Sevillana showed significant decrease at and below -5°C while in Frantoio cultivar there was significant dwindling blew -10°C. Oleuropein content significantly increased during cold stress but، tyrosol and hydroxy tyrosol content decreased in both cultivars compared with the controls. According to the current results، Frantoio and Sevillana showed different resistance under cold stress، so that Frantoio was more resistant than Sevillana.

Understanding the patterns of color changes in flowers and ornamental plants will be useful in breeding programs for production of novel and in demand cultivars. In this study, flower color changes and interaction of parameters affecting color were investigated and compared during three developmental stages and coloration of flowers in six cultivars of gerbera. Results showed that in different cultivars, flavonoids biosynthesis is started very earlier than flower blooming stage and prior to bud formation. Two types of anthocyanidins pigments; cyanidin and pelargonidin were also analyzed. Results showed that in all cultivars except in ‘Bastion’, ‘Double Dutch’ and ‘Eco’ cultivars that lacked pelargonidin pigment, cyanidins and pelargonidins were increased correspondingly to petal tissue evolution, but their ratio varied in different cultivars and during different flower developmental stages.

In order to investigate the effects of planting date and plant density on phyllochron and active integradients of milk thistle (Silybum marianum L.), two field factorial experiments based on a randomized complete blocks design were carried out in two sites (Rudbar and Rasht) in Guilan province, Iran, with three planting dates (Sep., 23; Oct., 12 and Nov., 1) and three plant densities (4, 6 and 8 plant.m-2) during 2008-2009. In this experiment it was observed that phyllochron was affected by planting date and plant density and with delay in planting date (from Sep., 23 to Nov., 1), phyllochron decreased and the rate of leaf appearance increased. The highest rate of leaf appearance was obtained in Oct., 12 (8.6 and 7.7 days in Rasht and Rudbar, respectively). Phyllochron increased with increasing plant density and the lowest phyllochron and, in other words, the maximum rate of leaf appearance was obtained in Rudbar site at a plant density of 4 plant.m-2 (7.7 days). The effect of planting date on silibin content of seeds in Rudbar site was significant (maximum 1.872 mg.g.-1DW) but it wasn’t significant on silibin content in Rasht. Effect of plant density was not significant on silibin yield.ha-1 and silibin content at both sites. Results of combined analysis showed that the effect of planting date on silibin and interaction effect of site and planting date on silibin yield.ha-1 was significant. The maximum silibin yield (1.31 kg.ha-1) was obtained from Sep., 23 in Rudbar site. According to the results of this experiment, although a delay in planting enhanced the rate of leaf appearance and increased plant's readiness to over-wintering, but it had no increasing effect on silibin content of seeds.

There are 10 to 12 species of genus Pyrus in the Alborz, Zagros mountain chains and north of Khorasan in Iran. Despite of high genetic diversity, there is no comprehensive information about physico-chemical traits of fruits of wild pear genotypes. In present study, some physical and biochemical traits including total soluble solids (TSS), percentage titratable acidity (%TA), TSS/TA, pH, vitamin C, antioxidant capacity, total phenolics content, total flavonoids content and the flavonoids compositions (catechin and chlorogenic acid) were measured. The results indicated that there was significant differences (P<0/01) except for antioxidant capacity. Fruit weight differed from 39.57 to 132.74 g, fruit lenght from 38.45 to 62.86 mm, fruit diameter from 41.45 to 64.26 mm, total soluble solids from 9.34 to 13.64 (°Brix), titratable acidity from 0.29% to 1.38%, TSS/TA from 7.21 to 35.40 and pH from 3.25 to 5.05. Genotype of 493 had the highest value of total phenolics content. According to the results of HPLC, chlorogenic acid and catechin in genotypes of 475 and 485 (106.8, 2.03 mg kg-1 FW, respectively) was higher than others. The results provided important information about the fruit quality and physico-chemical traits of fruits of wild pear genotypes investigated that may be used for breeding programs.

Demand for organic fruits due to higher nutritional value, quality and appropriate maintenance is increasing rapidly. In this research, the effects of organic and conventional production systems on the fruit storage life of kiwifruit cultivar 'Hayward' were compared in two consecutive years. Traits such as, total soluble solids (TSS), titratable acidity (TA), TSS/TA, fruit firmness, vitamin C, total phenol, total flavonoids and antioxidant capacity of fruits were evaluated at harvest time, 30, 60 and 90 days storage at temperatures 1±0.5ºC and relative humidity 90±5%. Results from this study showed that the weight loss in organic fruits during storage, were significantly lower than conventional systems as they kept their firmness during storage period. Vitamin C, total phenol, total flavonoids and antioxidant capacity of organic fruits at harvest and during storage were higher than conventional fruits. Total soluble solids (TSS) content at harvest time and in the end of storage was higher at conventional systems, but acidity levels in organic fruits at harvest time and storage period were higher than of conventional fruits. Overall, productions of organic fruits in addition to their high nutritional value were showed more longevity in the cold storage.

In order to study the effect of sodium chloride (NaCl), as a salinity stress factor, on sour orange seed germination indices, an experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design with 3 replica‌tions (each replication included 20 seeds) at the University of Guilan, in 2009. NaCl levels were 0, 7.8, 15.6 and 23.4 dS/m. The results showed that various levels of NaCl had significant effect on all the studied traits. Seed germination in 23.4 dS/m treatment started later than other treatments. The highest germination was in control and 7.8 dS/m NaCl treatments. The 15.6 and 23.4 dS/m NaCl treatments had the least germination percentage (85.7 and 46.9%, respectively). The highest germination index (length of germination period) was in 23.4 dS/m treatment followed by 15.6 and 7.8 dS/m and control with no significant difference. T50 was highest in 23.4 dS/m and lowest in control treatments. Mean daily germination, seed growth rate and seed vigor were highest in control treatment, with no significant difference with 7.8 dS/m treatment. Overall, it was found that germination of sour orange seeds is resistant to 7.8 dS/m NaCl, and they are able to germinate and grow in saline soils, as well.

This study was performed in order to determine a suitable alternative substrate for peat in soilless culture in 2007. Different plant wastes including carbonized rice hull, saw dust and dry pine leaves (Pinus eldarica) were examined. Treatments were 100% peat as control, peat plus dry pine leaves (1:1 v/v), peat plus carbonized rice hull (1:1 v/v) and peat plus saw dust (1:1 v/v). The study was conducted in the pot and tube culture system in the research Greenhouse of the College OF Agriculture, Guilan University. The results showed that the peat plus carbonized rice hull was the best one as FOLLOWS: the average total yield of Was 8.7 kg m-2; the marketable yield was 7.3 kg m-2; AND the most fruit set WAS 6.1 per plant and 70.6 of fruit per m-2. The highest total soluble solids (TSS) content WAS 4.2o Brix; also, Potassium content 400, Phosphorous 21.6, Calcium 13.3 and Magnesium 16.6 mg kg-1 were obtained from this substrate. Fruits and THE NUMBER OF LEAVES and magnesium content were higher at 1% and the other differences were obtained at 5%. Peat with the average of 38.6 cm had the most distance of the first inflorescence from substrate surface level, which was significantly higher than peat plus saw dust at level of 5%. There was no significant difference among the other characteristics. According to these results, mixed carbonized rice hull and peat (1:1 v/v) can be used as peat substitution in soilless culture substrates for tomato production.