فهرست مطالب شهلا بختیاری

Introduction :

The pursuit of societal harmony and the dignified treatment of all individuals, regardless of gender, marks a foundational ethos of Islam. This principle is vividly embodied in the Quranic discourse, notably in the fourth chapter of the Quran [Surah] named Al-Nisa (The Women), which underscores the rights and responsibilities of women within Islamic society. Such a balanced approach extends to the adjudication of moral crimes, wherein women, akin to men, are subject to equivalent standards of justice and retribution. The delineation of crimes into common and women-specific categories, particularly those infringing upon moral and sexual norms, reveals a nuanced understanding of societal ethics in Islamic jurisprudence. This study embarks on an explorative journey through the biography of the prophet (al-Sira al-Nabawiyya) of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), juxtaposed against the backdrop of the pre-Islamic era, to unearth the strategies employed in addressing women's moral crimes, with a spotlight on the transformational ethos brought forth by the advent of Islam.

Research Question :

Central to this inquiry is the exploration of the methodological stance adopted in the prophetic biography towards women's moral crimes. It seeks to unravel the multifaceted strategies and interventions employed by the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) in mitigating such offenses, particularly those rampant in the pre-Islamic society. The overarching question guiding this research is: "What approach has been adopted in the biography of the prophet (al-Sira al-Nabawiyya) of the Prophet of Islam against women's moral crimes, and what strategies and actions were taken to eliminate the aforementioned crimes prevalent in the pre-Islamic society?"

 Research Hypothesis :

The foundational hypothesis posits that the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), in his dealings with women's moral crimes, primarily aimed at safeguarding human dignity and ethical values. By steering societal norms away from sexual promiscuity and anchoring women's sexual behaviors within the sanctity of the family system, a dual strategy of prevention and punishment was envisioned. This was complemented by delineating clear boundaries for interactions between genders, fostering a safe environment for women's societal participation, and ultimately aiming at a voluntary abstention from crime through the promotion of ethical consciousness.

 Methodology & Framework, if Applicable:

Employing a qualitative research methodology, this study adopts a descriptive-analytical lens to delve into historical narratives before and after the emergence of Islam. A meticulous examination of ancient Islamic historical sources, along with narrative, jurisprudential, and legal texts, forms the bedrock of this research. The analysis is geared towards extracting, interpreting, and synthesizing data on the prophetic strategies against women's moral crimes. This approach is underpinned by a comparative framework that juxtaposes the ethical and legal paradigms of the pre-Islamic and Islamic eras, aiming to highlight the transformative influence of the prophetic biography in reshaping societal attitudes towards women's crimes. The inclusion of diverse sources, ranging from the Quran and Hadith to legal and historical texts, ensures a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter, facilitating a nuanced analysis that transcends mere descriptive recounting of events or legal edicts. This paper lays the groundwork for a deeper inquiry into the philosophical and practical dimensions of Islamic jurisprudence's approach to women's moral crimes, as encapsulated in the prophetic biography. Through a systematic exploration of historical contexts, legal norms, and ethical teachings, this research endeavors to illuminate the complexity and richness of Islamic legal traditions in addressing gender-based crimes, setting the stage for a subsequent discussion on the results and implications of these strategies in fostering a just and ethical society.

The study's investigation into the biography of the prophet (al-Sira al-Nabawiyya) of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) unveils a comprehensive approach to mitigating women's moral crimes, rooted deeply in the teachings of the Quran and the ethical paradigms of Islam. This approach, characterized by its depth, precision, and practical applicability, reveals four fundamental strategies aimed at the reformation of societal norms and personal conduct concerning sexual morality. These strategies encompass legislating on moral matters, delineating verbal and behavioral boundaries with non-Mahrams (Mahram is a term to describe a person related to another within forbidden degrees), the imperative to eschew obscenity and its propagation, and the definition and regulation of social interactions. The granularity and clarity of these directives reflect a sophisticated understanding of human behavior and social dynamics, offering a blueprint for a society grounded in ethical commitments and the sanctity of marriage and family life.The effectiveness of these strategies is predicated on their ability to foster an intrinsic aversion to libertinism, thereby encouraging voluntary adherence to ethical and moral standards. This internalization of values is further supported by explicit legal and punitive measures aimed at deterring and addressing transgressions, thereby maintaining the societal fabric. The Prophet's (PBUH) emphasis on prevention through moral education and the cultivation of an ethical consciousness underscores a holistic approach to societal reform, one that seeks to balance the spiritual and temporal dimensions of human existence.

 Conclusion:

The profundity of the prophetic biography in addressing the intricacies of women's moral crimes within Islamic jurisprudence cannot be overstated. The Prophet Muhammad's (PBUH) strategies delineate a comprehensive ethical and legal framework that not only seeks to prevent moral transgressions through education and the cultivation of an ethical consciousness but also employs legal measures to address and deter such behaviors. This dual approach—combining preventive education with punitive measures—exemplifies the Islamic ethos of compassion, justice, and the inherent dignity of the individual. It reflects a deep understanding of human nature and the complexities of societal dynamics, offering timeless wisdom on the management of sexual morality and ethics.This research highlights the transformative impact of the prophetic strategies on pre-Islamic society, marked by a shift from a predominantly punitive approach to one that emphasizes moral and ethical reform. The integration of these strategies within the societal fabric of the time facilitated the emergence of a community characterized by its commitment to ethical principles, particularly in the realm of sexual conduct. This shift was not merely regulatory but represented a profound transformation of societal values and norms, fostering an environment where the dignity of women and the sanctity of the family were paramount.  The findings of this study not only contribute to a deeper understanding of the prophetic biography's approach to women's moral crimes but also offer valuable insights for contemporary discussions on legal reform, gender rights, and the role of ethics in the formulation of laws. The prophetic model presents a paradigm that balances the spiritual and temporal needs of society, emphasizing the role of education, moral cultivation, and legal measures in fostering a just, ethical, and compassionate community. This model remains relevant today, offering guidance for addressing moral and ethical challenges in diverse social and cultural contexts.  In conclusion, the biography of the prophet (al-Sira al-Nabawiyya) offers a nuanced and comprehensive framework for addressing moral crimes, particularly those related to sexual ethics. The Prophet Muhammad's (PBUH) approach, characterized by its emphasis on moral education, prevention, and the judicious application of legal measures, provides a template for creating a balanced, ethical, and just society. This study underscores the relevance of these strategies in contemporary discourse on law, ethics, and gender rights, highlighting the enduring wisdom of the prophetic model in guiding human conduct towards a dignified and harmonious existence.

A countless number of people from the elite society, including Sufis and Mystics, left Iran for Anatolia between 5th-7th centuries AH/11th-13th centuries AD. In this research, It has been tried to investigate and explain the reason for the emigration of Sufis by combining two descriptive and analytical approaches, and relying on library sources. Inspired by the Everett S. Lee's Push and Pull Theory, and relying on historical evidence, and contrary to the common belief which considers the influence of the Mongol attack as the main factor for such emigration, it was found that the most important effective factors in the realization of the emigration of Sufis and Mystics to Anatolia can be considered: a series of pushing factors such as the ever-increasing population of Turkmen immigrants, the spread of religious prejudices and its strengthening by politicians, wars, conflicts and natural disasters; as well as a series of pulling factors including the propaganda, educational activities and defense of the borders of Islam, establishment of religion, respecting mystics by Seljuk sultans and their tolerance and distance of Anatolia from turbulent areas.

Women’s education is one of the important elements since the time of constitutionalism. The lack of suitable educational facilities was one of the obstacles to the realization of the widespread interest in higher education among girls. Karim Fatemi, one of the educational directors of the second Pahlavi era, knowing the cultural roots of obstacles of the aforementioned problem, realized the importance of girls' high schools in 1343 and designed the educational programs of the school in compliance with the country's educational laws. His effort was to design and launch courses that train specialized skills that will be made students ready for employment opportunities. In this research, using the descriptive-analytical approach, we have analyzed the possible effect of the educational programs of the seven majors and extracurriculars of these schools in improving the students' skills until 1353. The scoring of students entering university, as well as the demand for interns from many institutions, shows the positive effect of the course headings of the programs and extra programs in changing the cultural atmosphere of society regarding the education of women and the use of their specialized capabilities.

One of the theological currents of the Islamic world was the I‘tizal current, which began its activities in the Basra region in the first century and over time achieved many advances in the expression of theological ideas. But in the third century, the activities of the I‘tizal current in the Basra school stopped under the influence of several factors. The main question of this research is how did the Mu‘tazila school of Basra get out of the recession? The present study was conducted using a descriptive- analytical method and the result show that Abu Ali Al-Jubba’i, one of the leaders of the Mu‘tazila school in Basra, using measures such as transferring the school from Basra to Askar Mukarram, holding debate meetings, training students and compilation of books and expressing new ideas and confrontation with the opponents of I‘tizal has been effective in bringing the Mu‘tazila school of Basra out of the recession.

Muḥammad b. Ḥabīb is a third century A.H./ninth century A.D. historian, whose two prominent works, Al-Munammaq fi’l ʾAkhbār Quraysh and Al-Muḥabbar, are useful sources in the study of the history of pre-Islamic and Islamic eras.The present study aims at critically analyzing the author’s opinion and his two great works. The critical approach towards Ibn Ḥabīb (as a Muslim narrator) and his works (as remarkable works in the history of Jāhilīyyah and Islam) help us in understanding his methods in the historiography of Islam.Research shows that Ibn Ḥabīb explores and provides reports from Jāhilī traditions like Munāfirih and Jār in the history of Jāhilīyyah.  He was especially meticulous in recording the names of people and their lineages, tools, and animals (like horses). In this regard, Ibn Ḥabīb provides reports that cannot be found elsewhere.  Some of the weaknesses of these two works are a lack of organization and cohesion in compiling the Reports, as well as a summarized narration. The most important point regarding Ibn Ḥabīb’s historiography is his trustworthiness and his providing the chain of isnād. This is especially true regarding the history of Jāhilīyyah, where most information has been recorded with citations to Ibn Ḥabīb’s own teacher, Ibn Hishām.Eventually, the writers of this article, based on an analysis of the content of his works, deny the commonly held belief that Ibn Ḥabīb was a Shīʿā Muslim.

Religious travels has been interest for Iranians. During the Qajar period, travels increased and women were more present in them.travels was difficulties and everyone accompanied by for but women problems were more than others. It is possible Part of the problems were due to physical characteristics or travel conditions. The present study with an approach Using descriptive-analytical qualitative method and use of documents and library resources Reveals the problems of womenchr(chr('39')39chr('39'))s pilgrimage to Karbala in the second Qajar period. Research results show، Problems at the first level Due to climatic conditions transportation and security Which can be considered as obvious problems of travel Which can be considered as obvious problems of travel and in the second level of diseases death and lack of a gynecologist up to health issues like the impossibility of bathing family issues temporary marriage and includes unwanted pregnancies.

In Medina the Prophet (PBUH) was faced with several faults and problems with the social order arising from the structure of relationships based on the values and norms of the Age of Ignorance, social capitals in those relationships, and non-conformity of some members of the social network with reformation of the structure of the relationships. On the other hand, Koranic evidence and transmitted-historical sources testify to the ubiquitous presence of the category of trust in, and agreement with the Prophet (PBUH) among another group of Muslims. This article aims to identify and explain the basis and conditions for the formation of the phenomenon of trust in the Prophet (PBUH) as well as actions/reactions by him, the trusting and trust-avoiding groups, and their behavioral outcomes in Muslims’ social network.   Due to the lack of a hypothesis, this study simultaneously collected data in a purposeful manner and determined the sample size based on theoretical saturation, using the paradigmatic model of the methodical approach of the grounded theory through constant comparative analysis. According to the research findings, the basis for the trust in the Prophet (PBUH) was emotional and cognitive and the reflection of the trust is observed in the camaraderie and agreement among, and moldability of the trusting group under the influence of the Prophet (PBUH). The formation of the trust was accounted for by the Prophet’s qualitative, extensive and constant communication and interaction with such action components as the human touch, honoring people, affection, forbearance, emotional stability, righteousness, decidedness, acumen, and responsibility against the background of a social order based on humiliation, discrimination, neurosis, and revenge in the Age of Ignorance. By nullifying the measures taken by the trust-avoiding group, the strategies adopted by The Holy Prophet and the trusting group improved and facilitated interactions in Muslims’ social network.

We have been teaching English in Iran for decades now; however, the materials used at schools and in institutes have been adopted from or influenced by the commercial textbooks published by dominating powers. The themes, topics, and the lexical networks dispose learners toward internalizing secular and materialistic values in life. There have been attempts on the part of Iranian material developers to detach from the inconsistencies of the commercial materials with Islamic and Iranian values; however, the ideal Islamic life4, which is the ultimate goal of education in Islam has rarely received due attention. Moving toward such a lifestyle demands a harmony among all the parts of the educational system, including all the different school subjects and their corresponding materials and methods. Nevertheless, English language courses have remained unaffected by Islamic teachings and have focused on the lowest level of life without considering the critical questions regarding the meaning of life. One of the main steps toward understanding the purpose of life in the Glorious Qur’an is to look around at nature which is one of the richest sources of understanding for people in Islamic thought. Therefore, in this research, the verses about nature in the Glorious Qur’an, specifically the ones about water as the element of life and the source of all living creatures, were studied carefully to find out how the divine language of Qur’an reminds people of the purpose of life by referring them to natural phenomena. Accordingly, the verses from the Glorious Qur’an related to the subject of water, including verses containing the words “water”, “rain”, “spring”, “river”, and “the sea”, along with their interpretations in Tasnim (Javadi Amoli, 2012), Nasime Hayat (Bahrampour, 2013), and Noor (Gharaati, 2009), were checked and analyzed. In these verses, a picture from nature is first described and explained in carefully selected words and then people are urged to think about it. These verses also refer to the people’s responsibility and what they should do in different contexts and situations and try to help them understand how they should manage their likes and dislikes according to God’s Words. The pictures were taken from the verses of the Glorious Qur’an and organized into four images including “life-giving water”, relating to the fact that rain from the sky gives life to the dead land and brings back hope to people; “creation from water”, which is about water as the main element of life from which a great percentage of the creatures’ body is made; “a divine living from the sky: the water we drink, the food we eat”, reminding people of the source of whatever they have and need for life; and at last “such a short life it is”, which refers to the picture shown in some verses of a dead land which is brought back to life by rain, the greenness which is created, and how soon it changes to something like straw which is spread all over with the wind. For the purpose of developing materials, these pictures were summarized into sentences from Qur’an with a list of words from the same verses, which together will take thoughts closer to the concepts intended by the Glorious Qur’an. In these scenes, pictured through words for people, they are reminded that it is God who has created and controls everything and He is the One who is praiseworthy. This is referred to as the foundational concept of “Tawhid” or the oneness of God which has a leading role in different aspects of life and stands against the positivistic view toward the natural phenomena assumed to be bestowed upon us by Mother Nature. Furthermore, people are reminded about death and life afterwards by being strongly advised to look at the death and life happening around in spring, when the earth gets green. These two concepts are fundamental in Islamic ideology of life and determine every aspect of life style; therefore, the purpose of materials should be to delineate these concepts and their applications. The language of the Glorious Qur’an has presented these concepts in stories, metaphors, and similes, in all of which words come together beautifully to serve the purpose of teaching man the divine concepts essential to both worldly and spiritual life. Moreover, man is asked questions to rise from the death of ignorance and be challenged to think by being addressed in these verses. Based on these findings, the units in the materials can be organized around the structure of “look, think, and live”, in which learners will be shown a picture from nature, descriptions of which should be worded according to the words and sentences from the Glorious Qur’an. Some questions are also suggested for each picture which can be formed into a writing or speaking task in class, which are Tawhid- and Maa’d-based. These questions can help learners relate these concepts to their real life, broaden their views toward nature, and deepen their thoughts by stepping beyond mere enjoyment and worldly benefits from nature.

Ibn al-Mujawir is an unknown Iranian theoretician, whose travelogue, Tarikh al-Mustabsir, despite its theoretical importance, is less known among contemporary researchers. Tarikh al-Mustabsir is a report of Ibn al-Mujawir’s journey into the cities of the Arabian Peninsula in which a first-hand account of the replacement of trading centers and its causes in the first half of the 7th century AH has been presented. One of the remarkable characteristics of the author of the travelogue is that he takes into account the theoretical issues when discussing the causes of the destruction or prosperity of the cities. Despite theorizing about the replacement of the aforementioned centers, Ibn al-Mujawir did not present his theoretical framework explicitly. But through scrutinizing his accounts in Tarikh al-Mustabsir, it can be inferred that the author methodologically based his descriptions and observations on a coherent theoretical framework. His theory is based on the preposition that the decline and destruction of certain urban centers, especially seaport ones, would lead to the prosperity of other urban centers. In this paper, in addition to shedding light on two historical problems related to Ibn al-Mujawir and his travelogue, the theoretical approach of him has been introduced and his theory about the replacement of trading and demographic centers has been studied for the first time by using the method of intentional Hermeneutics. The method of data collection of this paper is library-based.

The socio-economic vitality of the prophetic era promoted the society and created the potential to solve socio-economic problems. The main purpose of this article is to identify the factors that regenerate socio-economic vitality in the prophetic period. The paradigm or model of this research is derived from the method of Strauss and Corbin's Grounded Theory. Therefore, based on definition of social vitality phenomenon, this article discusses mediating factors (causal conditions), immediate factors (contextual and intermediate conditions) and its strategies and consequences during Prophetic era. Also, a comparative analysis has been performed through Qur’an, authentic historical narratives and sources by theoretical sampling and quantification based on theoretical saturation. The main hypothesis is that popular attitudes and motivations based on economic mutual assistance experienced under the rational-value management of the Prophet (PBUH) in economic domains had influenced social action based on socio-economic vitality through the distribution of popular institutions (mosques and economic assistance).

The monopoly of Western ideologies, theories and methods through English language education as well as the marginalization of Islamic values in English language learning materials has caused heated debates and controversies among Muslim TEFL scholars. In a descriptive and interpretive analysis, this study attempts to bring light to some theoretical issues pertained to language education and Islamic education in a historical mode hoping to pave the way for further exploration of Islamic heritage in English language education theory and practice. The study also calls for designing English literacy programs in light of the Islamic education theories and methods, and urges Muslim TEFL scholars to restructure English language education in a way that meets the demands of an Islamic education. Thus, it first looks at the roots where Islamic education has guided many intellectual movements including language education. Secondly, it reviews the colonial era in which western education has created a gap between the glorious Islamic past and through its language superiority. Then, it explores the awakening movements that call for reunion and return to our ‘true selves’ in education, in general and in language education, in particular. It is hoped that the present work may pave the way for further exploration of Islamic heritage in English language education theory and practice.

The recognition of Ignorance and its sociological attachments regarding its close proximity to Early Islamic Community is very important. Moreover the essence and the features of Ignorance indicate not only be considered to the pre-Islamic period but also on the contrary to Islam and any fundamental transition, one of the initial steps studying the ratio of a society to the Ignorance is, the perception of its meanings, concepts and subjects. Among the existing in this arena, beside the Holy Qur’an and The Hadiths of Prophet (PBUH), the sermons of Ali (PBUH) is of considerable importance. Applying descriptive approach by using the grounded theory method, through the constancy between the inductive reasoning (creating concepts, subjects and the relations in between) and deductive reasoning (examining the concepts, subjects and the relations in between). This research intends to find the dominant criteria in evaluating the ratio of society to Ignorance in Nahdj al-Balagha and renders the term “irrational-faith” as the major concept in this arena.

The book " Tarikh-e-Firozshahi" by "Ziauddin Bin Muayyadul Mulk Barany " , is one of the most important texts of Islamic historiography in the territory of India . In addition to contemplation of political issues of muslim kings of Delhi until the era of author , this work , encompasses social and economical issues of society .
The contemplation of social and economical issues of people is being significant as the result of the important role of people in direction of history in addition to the fact that ; an courtier author completed this job.
This writing tries to reach Barany's viewpoints through direct and indirect signs . The following question is designed in order to meet this

How could Ziauddin Barany's social insight affect on his historiography?
In response to this question the following hypothesis is given:Ziauddin Barany's social insight led to his serious attitude to ward the social issues in order to guiding kings and sovereigns of that era , to improve the society .
Be sides acquaintance with Ziauddin Barany biography and his viewpoints about social and economical issues, this article also find out his viewpoints about effective factors in social alternations .

The social system in Arabian Peninsula in pre Islamic era remained tribal- clan with no particular form of integrated social unity in this region. It was more affected by multitude population, dominated traditions and illiteracy in terms of education and civilization. Influencing the type of the administration system over the various parts of peninsula, it rather determined the type of supremacy over the region either compatible or incompatible with social system developments. Consequently, while the tribe itself made the only social unit in some parts of the land, some developed areas experienced a great consolidation within the sort of integrated tribal form as a large social unit. This influenced the trend of administration system as well as making diversity in ruling system according to the particular social units in the region.Investigating on the types of supremacy in three major parts of Arabian Peninsula in pre Islamic era, this study accomplished by manipulating Weber’s Traditional Supremacy Typology. According to the findings, there has to be three types of supremacy over the peninsula at that time: Senior supremacy, paternal supremacy and patriarchy.

Auhud, one of the significant battles in the prophet era, had a strong influence on Muslim destiny. Initially victorious, the battle ended up with defeat at the part of Muslims in spite of enemy desertion. Having various contributions of companions during the battle, some companions fought sincerely for the sake of the prophet and his mission however, some did not prove so. Their effort so could be considered as inefficient support as they escaped from the field and failed to resist. The Quranic and historical resources approach to this event may vary so this research intends to recognize the type of contributions made in the battle. The method applied in this research is qualitative typology. According to the statistics, from 27 verses (Ayat) about Auhud Battle only 30% would bear the index of “full supporters” whereas the rest of 70% fall for “semi or non supporters” index. Interestingly, the historical resources, willing to introduce the majority of companions as full supporters, ignore the characteristics of two other indicia upon them. Therefore, the Quranic critical approach to the passive contribution of majority of companions in the battle shows obvious contradiction towards the historical resource analysis. In fact, the verses address to the companions who were negligent in the field of the battle and their effort has considered as insufficient and inefficient to support the prophet.

Cultural development is the basis of all aspects of development in the life of human; and without having efficient and dynamic cultural values, the society can’t be directed towards growth. One of the dimensions of cultural development is attending earthly affairs which has a mutual reflection in lessons of Islam and Iranian culture. In this study, the try is to extract the parameters of cultural development from Nahj-ol-Balaghah (as one of the main resources of original didacticism in Islam) by content analysis and compare them with the common culture in view of some of the Iranian thinkers. Altogether, it can be said that hereafter-orientation is among the important parameters in managing earthly affairs which is based on contentment, moderation, and hopefulness. These concepts have been among the repetitive issues in Hikmas of Nahjol- Balaghah. Abandoning the earthly world has been considered in relation to disliking the Haraam (the forbidden things) in order to reach hereafter reward but its reflection in the Iranian culture has led to isolationism, poverty, determinism and desperation.

Paying attention to Sira of the holy prophet is considered as one of highest goals of ministry of Education in the education of children and adolescents in Iran. In the official education system، textbooks are considered as proper context for introducing and educating religious thoughts. This research is trying to survey the of reflection of data about Sira of prophet in High School Textbooks، Experimental Sciences and Math/Physics Specialties، 2012-2013 School Year by using quantitative methods and frequency assessment. In this research، the frequency of data، the kind of narrative and references are studied. The result of the research show that in the Experimental Sciences Specialties between the sum of 6151 pages and in the Math/Physics Specialties between the sum of 6508 pages، only 212 pages in each specialties are related to the reflection of Sira of the prophet. Most of the content related to the Sira of the prophet in the textbooks is without citing the source (44. 29)، also in the kinds of narration of Sira، hadith took the greater percentage (47. 03) and the fictional narrative in spite of its high educational capacity has been used less (17. 8).

The word science has gone through semantic change in different historical periods and in relation to the cultural and social circumstances of the time and thus has been used in various senses. A semantic study of word in the pre- and post-Islamic eras will reveal that the word has been used in different and even opposite senses. This means that، in the Age of Ignorance (pre-Islamic era)، under the time’s prevalent intellectual and cultural way of thinking، the word science was perceived differently than the age of Islam. Due to its historical importance and background، Mo‘allaqāt al-Sab‘a is a useful text for carrying out a semantic study of the word science in the Age of Ignorance. The Qur’an verses، as an important source from which Islamic principles and thoughts have emerged، can be useful for studying semantic change of the word in the pre-Islamic era. This study uses two aspects of semantic relationship، synonymy and antonymy، to do a semantic study of the word science in the Age of Ignorance and the Islamic era. In the antonymy method، the meaning of science has been determined through words which are used in the context as antonyms of science، and in the synonymy method، words which have been used as an alternative to science have been considered to specify the meaning of the word. In the Age of Ignorance، senses of the word science are basically related to the domains of personal experiences and one’s level of understanding the world around him، but in the sense of the word has gained some cognitive aspects in the Qur’an verses.

Islam's Prophet (PBUH) set the contract of Medina as the first documented constitution in the arena of Islam to clarify the relationships of Muslim and non-Muslim residents in Medina and also the relationship with the people out of Medina.This contract is of highly importance in terms of the conflict Resolution. The applied and predicted methods in it has made it manifest as the most efficient samples concerning the conflict Resolution. The present article is to answer this question that through the comparative evaluation of Medina's contract with the new approaches of the conflict Resolution in the west, what similar cases between these two approaches could be found? It is assumed that despite the existence of cultural diversities in both cases, it is endeavored to settle the disputes through the approach of determining mediator present in the contract of Medina, dividing the conflict into the smaller elements, determining principles, and accepting the planned system of mediation and higher authority. Such a structure which was so promoted in it's time and made a permanent peace in the community would be unique, faultless and also stronger compared with the current approaches of conflict Resolution in the west. Such features present in the contract of Medina except it from a limited regional contract and puts it in the array of the most promoted principles of the conflict Resolution.

Imam Ali caliphate period was associated with the incidence of overt opposition of some people and factions. The outbreaks of Camel, Siffin and Nahrawan battles were the result of those feuds. By reviewing of historical reports, the change of political behavior of Imam's Oppositions is appearing as a considerable phenomenon and to answer the question of the cause and quiddity of those changes in political behavior is the main problem of this research. For this purpose by application of the descriptive typological method, the political behavior of 296 dissidents of Imam Ali (pbu), including those behavior's changes during Imam Ali Caliphate, has been studied. Results showed four types of political behavior: cooperation, then opposition (approximately 44.59 %); opposition, then cooperation (approximately 4.39 %); Opposition, then cooperation and then opposition (approximately 1.01 %); continuous opposition (approximately 50 %). It should be noted that the new findings of this research have practical importance because of their usefulness in theorizing and interdisciplinary researches.