علی محمد محمدی

Simultaneous decoding and encoding of information in source and target languages comprise the two major components of the simultaneous interpretation as an interactional process. The interpreter is simultaneously involved in decoding of information in the source language and encoding of information in the target language (Chesterman, 2016; Gile, 2018). Parallel corpora are derived from two languages, including source texts and their translations (Zuffery, 2017).Explicitation, as a general tendency or one of the universals of translation, is a strategy in which the implicit information of the source text is made explicit in the process of translation (Blum-Kulka 1986; Dimitrova, 2005). The bases of explanations originates from comparative analysis of parallel texts in source and target languages. What is the rationale behind the studies in explicitation? It is maintained that explicitation is a universal property in translation, revealing its crucial role, significance, and status in translation. Findings obtained from empirical studies can consequently be supposed to be generalizable to other language-related studies.Explicitations in translation are initiated by demands of the communicative conditions and situations. Moreover, due to the anticipated differences and variations appearing in culture and world knowledge, translators foresee some problems for the target language reader to comprehend the text. Therefore, they use explicitation as a strategy to solve those anticipated problems and facilitate the understanding of the target text for the reader (Chesterman 2016; Klaudy 1998).The analysis and investigation of the system of decoding and encoding in process of simultaneous interpretation is generally carried out in the framework of metadiscourse and interpreter’s discursive activities. According to Hyland (2005), in metadiscourse and discursive practices, the investigator tries to study and analyze the processes of production and comprehension of discourse based on social context and social situations. The analysis of these metadiscourse and discursive practice revealed that all these activities involve modification and change on behalf of the speaker/writer and audience. According to Dass and Taboada (2017) and Egg (2010), the analysis of parallel corpora revealed that the themes and issues of modification, substitution, and manipulation generally are directed to coherence relations in discourse. As a result, investigators resorted to the integration of translation studies and discourse investigations (Crible et al, 2019). Consequently, such an integration would result in a new methodology in discourse studies and suggest new models for analysis.The present paper tries to analyze the conditions, causes, and basis of different types of explicitation in the process of monitoring discourse based on analyzing translation of discourse markers (DMs) in simultaneous interpretation through translation spotting to design a model. In pragmatic investigations, researchers try to analyze the natural processing and use of language within the framework of social communicative settings (Yule, 2011). Discourse monitoring is among the basic issues in human communication and has crucial consequences in people’s social life. In the process of production, configuration, structuration, and comprehension of discourse, speaker/writer and audience apply discourse markers to create coherence in discourse based on grammatical elements, semantics, and pragmatics. DMs are the most frequent, creative, practical, and influential variables in the process of creation, analysis, and understanding of discourse (Fraser, 2006; Mohammadi, 2015). DMs are applied to improve and support the coherence of text, substantiate the activation of people's mind and language in the process of creation and interpretation of discourse, and prepare the ground for coherence and relevance in discourse. Achieving the above-mentioned objectives and aims depends on the precise, appropriate, professional, and creative application of DMs (Aijmer, 2002; Anderson, 2001; Schiffrine, 1987). There are different research positions and assumptions about the translation of DMs and Furku (2014) believes that the most straightforward translation strategy for discourse markers is omission. The present research tries to investigate translation strategies of DMs in simultaneous interpretation based on the following questions:To what extent is explicitation applied in the process of translating DMs in simultaneous interpretation?What are the different manifestations and strategies of explicitation in translating DMs in the process of discourse creation in simultaneous interpretation?

Comparative discourse analysis is a branch of linguistics focusing on comparative study of languages, cultures, and discourses in terms of similar linguistic and metalinguistic variables in the construction and monitoring of discourse (Linha, 2022). Monitoring discourse is the analysis of strategies in planning, distribution, production, and utilization of language to create coherence and relevance between units of discourse by the creative, innovative, and flexible way of application of discourse markers (DMs) in human communication (Mohammadi and Dehghan, 2021). This explorative, descriptive, and qualitative study analyzed coherence relations in “Modire Madreseh” by Jalal Aleahmad and “The Old Man and The Sea by Hemingway. DMs are the most frequent, complex, and creative meta-linguistic elements in human communication (Sayadkooh and Reisi, 2017). Their utilization in discourse is not random and they perform different cultural social and pragmatic functions facilitating human communication (Fraser, 2006). Theoretically, DMs are defined and analyzed from two perspectives: relevance theory by Sperber and Wilson (1995) and coherence theory by Glansberg (2018). And the assumptions include: all text possess coherence, there are different types of coherence relations in texts, and these coherence relations should be discovered by the people in discourse. Approaching DMs functionally, Redeker (2006) believes that DMs’ main function is establishing relationship between units of discourse. From a semantic perspective, Fraser (2006) analyzed DMs at sentence level and believes that they establish the relationship between messages in the former, present, and latter sentences. Aijmer (2013) concludes that DMs do not possess fixed lexical functions and their functions are contexts-dependent and context-sensitive resulting in different functions in discourse. Empirically, DMs are investigated in different languages skills such as writing, speaking, listening and translation by different investigators. This exploratory, descriptive, and qualitative study analyze coherence relations in two Persian and English literary works. Theoretically the study was supported by coherence theory in discourse analysis and the following analysis models established within this theoretical perspective: DMs inventory developed by Fraser (2006) and DMs functional inventory by Brinton (1996). Coherence theory centers around the appropriacy of concepts in terms of their relationship in the context of discourse. The corpus consisted of the following two Persian and English novels: “Modire Madreseh” by Jalal Aleahmad and “The Old Man and The Sea by Hemingway and these novels where selected due to the similar literary genre, similar readability levels, and close date of publication in two literary discourses. Moreover, to verify the reliability of the findings 20% the data were given to two raters to verify the researchers’ identification and classification of DMs and their functions. The results of the quantitative analysis revealed that the construction of coherence relations between units of discourse was substantiated based on a four plane framework established by four groups of inferential, elaborative, contrastive, and temporal DMs in monitoring discourse. And the most frequent DMs were elaborative DMs. The qualitative analysis of the pragmatic functions of DMs applied in these literary works resulted in the following seven plane spectrum of functions for DMs: information indication, temporality, topic switch, opening markers, closing markers, turn exchange, and reform markers. This creative, flexible, and innovative approach in the construction and interpretation of discourse is substantiated through the application of pragmaticalization. So, new, creative, and context sensitive inferences about functions are substantiated for DMs and they are always being renewed, modified, and innovated substantially. Different implications in different research and educational perspectives about teaching literature, language, and different languages skills are suggested and discussed.

Discourse is monitored through the employment of discourse markers in the process of human communication. The present article investigated two translations of the most frequent, complex, and ambiguous Qur’anic discourse marker wa into the Persian language. Two theories of coherence and translation spotting shaped the foundation of this research. Two Persian translations were selected based on purposive sampling. The analysis of the Persian parallel corpora revealed that the translation of this elaborative discourse marker was performed innovatively and dynamically by resorting to four categories of contrastive, elaborative, temporal, and inferential discourse markers and their various combinations. The creative, flexible, and dynamic approach observed in the analysis of the parallel corpora indicated that translation is complex pragmatic, culture-based, and discourse-oriented phenomenon. It is a dynamic discourse construction system underpinned by the invocation of different theoretical perspectives in discourse and the pragmatic enrichment of linguistic elements between languages, cultures, and discourses. As these creative and flexible approaches applied by translators are not put into practice in the areas of lexicography, curriculum development, and other areas of translation education, researchers, teachers, and other authorities are recommended to revise their approaches based on research findings and the relevant implications arising from parallel data analyses.

Simultaneous interpretation is a complex interactional process involving the simultaneous decoding and encoding of information in both source and target languages. Discourse relations play a crucial role in establishing and maintaining coherence within units of discourse, encompassing semantic and pragmatic links. Coherence can be achieved through various frameworks such as elaboration, contrast, inference, and temporal sequence, often facilitated by the use of discourse markers. However, despite the importance of studying discourse relations in simultaneous interpretation, there is a lack of research in this area, particularly in Iranian scientific and educational environments. This study aims to address this gap by analyzing the discourse relations in parallel corpora during the process of simultaneous interpretation, focusing on linguistic and metalinguistic elements and drawing on Coherence Theory and a discourse marker inventory.

As a discourse construction procedure, implicitation is one of the basic issues in pragmatic studies of translation and one of the problem-solving strategies in translation discourse. Since discourse markers are the central elements in monitoring discourse, the implicitation of their forms and functions is a critical phenomenon requiring further investigations. The present researcher’s objective in this study was the analysis and exploration of different manifestations and indexes of implicitation in monitoring discourse by the simultaneous interpreter to provide and design an analysis model in this pragmatic area. Translation potting in translatology and coherence in discourse analysis founded the theoretical bases of this investigation. Moreover, the analysis of parallel corpora was done by utilizing two models: an inventory of discourse markers in discourse analysis and an implicitation framework in translation studies. The results revealed that this Iranian simultaneous interpreter applied implicitation in 29% of the cases to solve his problems in his pragmatic efforts in the creation of discourse in translation. In addition, the analysis of his pragmatic strategies resulted in the exploration of a rectangular model in the implicitation of discourse markers: structural generalization, lexical reduction, lexical omission, and cultural-pragmatic awareness of audience discourse. Consequently, applying the strategies of this model substantiated this Iranian simultaneous interpreter’s creative discourse monitoring through implicitation. Finally, different implications in the areas of translation studies and education were analyzed and suggested.

Simultaneous decoding and encoding of information substantiate the foundations of natural processing of language in translation. The present study analyzed two Persian translators’ pragmatic strategies in translating the Quranic temporal discourse marker thumma into Persian. The source text corpus consisted of 6 sections of the holy Quran and was selected randomly; and the target text corpus is comprised of two Persian translations of the same sections. Theoretical perspectives in discourse and translation studies were applied in approaching parallel corpora analysis in the study. The findings indicate that different types and combinations of Persian temporal discourse markers were applied in 53% of the cases by the translators. Moreover, in 47% of the instances, it was replaced with Persian elaborative, contrastive, and inferential discourse markers. This creative, flexible, and innovative discourse construction approach was substantiated on the basis of the recognition of differences between discourses, cultures, and languages. Consequently, this dynamic approach was employed in the construction of an appropriate discourse for the addressee. The bases, resources, and foundations of these dynamic and discourse sensitive translation strategies were discussed pragmatic awareness raising in explicit teaching of these elements, development of sensitivity to unsteady social contexts in language use, and utilizing the findings in lexicography, translation quality assessment, and syllabus design were suggested.

In production and interpretation of discourse, interlucutors apply discourse markers (DMs) to establish and discover the relationship between discourse units (Crible & Dagand, 2019; Mohammadi & Radjaee, 2020; Schiffrin, 1987). DMs offer metadiscoursive instructions for the interpretation of discourse by the audience. This interactive process is activated through different types of metacommunicative knowledges and skills. Part of this experience embraces knowledge of text to employ grammatical and lexical elements to convey meaning. More important aspect of this faculty is related to metalanguage involving the capability to communicate different individual and social characteristics, to utilize language to communicate feelings, thoughts, and negotiate meaning (Maschler & Schiffrin, 2015). The analysis of DMs co-occurrences and combinations as a metadiscursive strategy can help researchers to predict specific possible patterns of DMs’ categorizations and such empirical and pragmatic findings will build up some foundations for future typological exploration as well as for the theorization of DM co-occurrences and collocations in general (Kassaei & Amouzadeh, 2020). Moreover, research in the area of language fluency has substantiated the positive influence of DMs investigation and analysis on second language acquisition and opens new horizons towards cognitive processes of discourse production and comprehension (Crible & Dagand,2019; Crible & Pascal, 2020). Based on DMs’ combinations sensitivity to contextual variables in real life situations, they develop novel interactive pragmatic strategies in communication in terms of emphasis, fluency of communication, and intimacy among the interlocutors (Jucker & Ziv, 1998). Consequently, the present researcher tried to investigate and compare the uses and pragmatic functions of co-occurrences of DMs in Arabic, English, and Persian texts.

Designing and introducing models for conducting research based on theoretical perspectives comprise the principles and foundations of descriptive, qualitative, and explorative studies. It is one of the current procedures in discourse and pragmatic studies which are generally based on corpus-based studies. Discourse markers are metalinguistic elements made up of prepositions, coordinators, conjunctions, adverbs, and short sentences. Discourse markers are applied in order to establish relationships between different units of discourse in human communication. The present research aimed to investigate and analyze the most complex, frequent, and effective metalinguistic elements, i.e. discourse markers, on the basis of coherence theory in discourse to explore and discover a discourse monitoring model on the basis of Qur’anic texts. To this end, 6 sections of the Holy Qur’an were randomly selected for the purpose of analysis. The corpus consisted of 16906 words. The analysis of the corpus produced a four plane of talk framework representing four types of discourse relations comprising inference, elaboration, contrast and temporal sequence. Different aspects of the findings were discussed, and different implications for education, research, material development, and lexicography were considered.

In multicultural context of health care, health providers’ ethnocentrism and English language skills play a crucial role in effective and appropriate intercultural communication. This study aims to explore the relationship between ethnocentrism and investment in English language learning in the multi-ethnic context of English language classrooms at Iranian medical universities. Thus, the levels of ethnocentrism and investment in English language learning of 200 Iranian medical students were measured using General Ethnocentrism Scale and Investment in English Language Learning Scale. The findings of the present study showed that despite the participants’ relatively moderate levels of ethnocentrism and investment, the two constructs strongly and negatively correlated with each other. That is, the more ethnocentric the participants were, the less invested in English language learning they were. Further, the relationship between ethnocentrism and investment, and different contextual factors such as linguistic loyalty, intercultural friendship, sense of legitimacy, and social comfort in multi-ethnic English classes were investigated. The results showed that social comfort had the strongest relationship with the degree to which the participants invested in English language learning in multi-ethnic classes. Practical implications, direction, and limitations are discussed.

Simultaneous interpretation involves the parallel and temporal decoding and encoding of information within natural language processing framework. And language processing includes change and adaptation. The present researcher tried to analyze simultaneous interpreter’s interpreting strategies in the interpretation of the two groups of the most frequent, effective, complex, and apparently simple discourse monitoring elements, that is, discourse markers (DMs). To carry out the study, the researcher applied parallel data focusing on the comparative analysis of inferential and temporal discourse markers from Persian into English. To meet the aims of the research, three Persian lectures along with their simultaneous interpretation were selected randomly. Coherence theory in discourse analysis and translation spotting in translation studies shaped the theoretical perspectives the study, and an inventory of discourse markers. The basis of this analysis was a comparative analysis of discourse markers in source and target texts. The results revealed that this simultaneous interpreter applied four groups of elaborative, contrastive, inferential, and temporal discourse markers in simultaneous interpretation of inferential and temporal discourse markers. This is a creative, flexible, and innovative approach in construction of discourse substantiated from an awareness of discoursal differences between two languages and application of this awareness in planning and creation of proper discourse for the audience. Moreover, this analysis revealed that this Iranian simultaneous interpreter applied a theory in pragmatics, that is, underspecification and another theory in linguistics, that is, co-operative principles. Different implications in various research and educational perspectives about curriculum planning, material preparation, and educational discourse were suggested.

Extra livestock than grazing capacity is one of the main effective factors on rangeland degradation. Most of the country's pastures have Extra livestock than grazing capacity, and from the past until now, the policy of dealing extra livestock by using legal punishments has not been able to completely solve this problem. Lack of attention to grazing capacity has led to the destruction of vegetation. The economic approach, the Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES), in return for the reduction of grazing capacity can contribute to rehabilitation of rangeland ecosystems which are getting degraded. One of the basic measures in this regard is to determine the Willingness to Accept (WTA) by the rangeland utilizers.

In this research, in the statistical society of ranchers in the rangelands of Bardeh and Kresnak regions in Ben city of Chaharmahal va Bakhtiari province, after classifying the ranchers, sampling and interview were performed randomly in each category. Data were collected through regular and guided interviews and questionnaires. In this section, two scenarios were analyzed. Scenario 1 Based on the questionnaire, the annual profit of each sheep and goat productive livestock was asked directly from the rancher. In the second scenario, the net income from each animal unit was determined by calculating costs and revenues, and the amount of lost pastoral income due to the elimination of one animal unit was determined. The two values ​​calculated in the scenarios were compared and the second scenario, which was more accurate as a quantitative number, was introduced to the respondents. The willingness to pay (WTA) of ranchers in return for the grazing livestock elimination was determined by conditional valuation method (CVM), using the logit function. Role of the law and Existing instructions on PES was investigated by Content analysis method.

Results showed that 71.4% of ranchers agree with PES in return for the grazing livestock reduction. The WTA in return for elimination per A productive sheep and goat are determined to be 7265 and 6462 thousand Iranian Rials per year, respectively which is lower than the net income per animal unit. The share of the pasture from the net income of a sheep and a productive goat in the permitted utilization conditions, which are set for one hundred days, is set at 1990 and 1770 thousand Rials, respectively. In the current utilization conditions, the dependence of livestock on rangeland during the year is 44.4%. The outputs of the logit model show that the WTA ranchers increase with the bid price (P = 0.00). There is significant relationship between WTA and the number of grazing livestock (P<0.01). Instructions for terms of rangeland utilization have been prepared and reviewed 5 times. The executive procedure for calculating the customary rights of ranchers has also been prepared and revised by the Cabinet of Ministers in 1391 in 3 times, in 1395, 1398 and 1399, with the approval of its executive regulations. An analysis of the content of these guidelines reveals that is not mentioned payment for ecosystem services.

 A comparison between the first and second scenarios shows that the net income of an animal unit in the first scenario is higher than the second scenario, and the reason for this difference can be related to the income effect. That is, if a higher amount is answered by ranchers in the interview, they will gain more benefits. The minimum level of Payment for Ecosystem Services per animal unit should be equal to that of the profit per animal unit. Investigation of the laws and regulations related to the rangeland shows that yet no law or regulation have been enacted in terms of the PES, in return for the elimination of grazing livestock and even it has not been mentioned in legal terms

One of the ways to reduce the improper utilization on natural ecosystems is the economic valuation of ecosystem services and payment to the service providers in exchange, to reduce the causes of degradation. This approach is known as“Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES). In this research, the strategic factor analysis approach was employed to identify strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) in rangelands of Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari province. Using a questionnaire and Delphi method, through a survey of 75 experts, the factors were identified. Weighted factors and priority of each factor were determined through multi-criteria entropy decision making method. Results showed that the most important strength is “reduction of grazing intensity by the implementation of PES” with a score of 0.149, the most important weakness is “the lack of monitoring and inspection of grazing capacity with a score of 0.165, the most important opportunity is “improving non-market services of rangeland ecosystem” with a score of 0.145 and the most important threat is “giving preference to the market functions over non-market functions by policymakers” with the score of 0.174. The payment scheme can be a complementary option to reduce grazing intensity if rangers voluntarily reduce their livestock.

Establishing coherence in discourse is an interactive process that is activated through different types of communicative knowledge and skills. Part of this knowledge includes knowledge of the text to organize grammatical and lexical forms to convey meaning. Another part of this faculty is connected to the metalanguage level. It consists of the power to express personal and social identities, to use language to express attitudes and negotiate meaning, and the cognitive ability to manipulate ideas (Maschler and Schiffrin, 2015). Discourse markers (DMs) function in all of the above cognitive, expressive, social, and textual domains and operate as metacommunicative and metadiscursive elements (Frank-job, 2006). Consequently, they become devoid of semantic meaning due to their sensitivity to contextual variables in real-life situations and assume new interactive pragmatic behaviors and strategies known as pragmaticalization in discourse (Jucker & Ziv, 1998). Therefore, their real precise and comprehensive uses, functions, and strategies can mainly be explored within the framework of communicative purposes and interactive contexts. Accordingly, some researchers have come to the idea that analysis of a functional spectrum of discourse markers in social contexts is the most practical and useful method of investigation (Crible & Degand, 2019; Frank-job, 2006; Groute, 2002; Hyland, 2005; Trillo, 2009). As a result, the researchers tried to analyze translation criticism in the Persian language in terms of the types and the frequency of DMs functions. This descriptive, qualitative, and explorative study benefits from various scientific and research informing bases and resources: the study of famous and key authors’ theoretical studies, investigation of key empirically corpus-based researches, and pragmatic analysis of the functional spectrum of discourse markers in randomly selected translation criticism corpus in the Persian language during the three last decades. Moreover, the present study applied Fraser’s (2006) taxonomy of discourse markers and Brinton’s (1996) functional model for the analysis of discourse markers. The taxonomy of discourse markers provides the criteria for the determination of DM use from non-DM use of these metadiscursive elements in translation criticism discourse. And the functional model is applied to discover the functional range of DMs in this genre. Another informing resource of the research was its raters. Both raters were English instructors with 5 years of experience in teaching, familiar with the literature, have conducted researches in this area, and possessed the necessary expertise.   The corpus consisted of 15 translation criticisms written by Iranian translation professors (%75) and professional translators (%25) published in Motarjem, the Iranian journal with more than 30 years of experience in translation theory, analysis, and education. Moreover, the corpus consisted of more than 30000 words selected randomly. All of the instances of DMs’ use were determined and sorted by applying Fraser’s taxonomy of discourse markers and DMs functional spectrums were analyzed and explored through Brinton’s functional model. And about 50% of the instances of the DMs along with their functions in the sentence were extracted and given to the raters to approve the reliability of the research. The findings resulted in a six-plane functional spectrum model for a discourse monitoring system in the translation criticism genre including information indicators, topic switchers, attitude markers, temporal markers, opening markers, and closing markers. They are not covered in Persian grammar and dictionaries. Also, the correlation coefficient of inter-rater reliability was .61, which is an acceptable index of reliability. The diversity and flexibility in the functional spectrum can be justified from different perspectives. Subsequently, in the process of translation criticism DMs are manipulated creatively in order to prove the inadequacies of the translation or to characterize the qualifications of the rendering. This justification is in line with findings and ideas reported by Fischer (2006). Moreover, justification for this flexibility is related to Frank-job’s (2006) view of pragmaticalization of meaning in discourse. That is, in real-life situations, the propositional meaning of discourse markers is changed drastically, they assume pragmatic meanings, and these meanings change based on context. This context covers cognitive, expressive, social, and textual domains. These domains are manipulated by contextual variables. These variables include people, places, and times. DMs’ functional spectrums manipulated by the variables and they assume new interactive meanings in discourse. This functional spectrum may constantly be influenced by multiple, complex, innovative, and creative inferences and is always changing, developing, and evolving systematically. As DMs form the basic cognitive, social, cultural, and efficient discursive system of human communication, then, it is recommended that any modifications, developments, and plans in education, research, and management in various aspects of translation education be based on research on the pragmatic functions of these metalanguage elements.

The present exploratory research intended to investigate the coherence relations in intercultural communications in the process of translation. As a result, the manifestations of underspecification in translation strategies of the most frequent, complex, common, and apparently simple discourse marker “and” were investigated qualitatively and quantitatively. Research methodologies in discourse analysis and translation studies were combined through the data derived from parallel corpora in simultaneous translation. The parallel corpora in consisted of three lectures in Persian and their simultaneous translation into English including about 35000 words. Instances of DMs were determined and sorted applying Mohammadi and Dehghan (2020) inventory of DMs based on the analysis of corpora in translation studies. The results revealed that in 73% of the cases, the simultaneous translator resorted to underspecification in the process of translating discourse marker “and”. This explorative investigation revealed two manifestations of underspecification in the process of analysis: change and omission. The translator changed this DM into different DMs in 35% of the instances. And the instances of AND were deleted in 38% of the cases. However, in 28% the instances of use “and” was not underspecified in the process of translation. The bases and sources were discussed and different educational, research, and administrative implications were suggested.

As a cumulative and elaborative discourse marker, and is the most frequent, crucial, creative, effective, and complex discourse monitoring element. This explorative investigation enjoys two scientific and research informing resources: analysis of key authors studies and interpretation of creative corpuses in Persian and German poetry. Applying Schiffrin’s (2006) model of discourse planes of talk to discover its patterns of use and functions, this article analyzed ‘and’ in Hafiz and Goethe poems. The results revealed that this marker had uses both in primary and secondary planes of discourse. The primary planes consisted of functions in ideational structure and plane of discourse establishing temporal, cause and effect, and topic relations. And the secondary planes included functions in the action and information structure of discourse dealing with command, narration, purpose, inference, justification, emphasis, balance, expansion, contradiction, and expectations. Unfortunately, these discoursal strategies and functions are not analyzed in grammar books and dictionaries. Moreover, as the results showed because of its pragmatic and indexical properties, this marker combined ideational, action, and information planes of discourse. The combination of and with other markers was another discoursal outcome of this study. Due to the exploration of new, different, and unique functions for this marker, some pedagogical and research implications in teaching languages, classroom strategies and its management, material development, and lexicography are discussed.

This paper intends to investigate discourse monitoring system through the analysis of theories, models, strategies, and researches. Three theories of coherence, relevance, and norm epistemic outlook are offered. Six models are offered. The critical analysis of the models resulted in a scientific, research, and educational inference that Fraser’s (1992, 1998) model possesses the highest rate of application. Other models suffer from various practical limitations. Moreover, the study revealed that discourse monitoring strategies are speaker-oriented, hearer-oriented, and speaker\hearer-oriented. Some of them overlap and are not separate and may be mixed up. And the researches, in the area, have mostly been quantitative, discovered the type and the frequency of occurrences, have been limited to TEFL, and other languages and the relevant areas are mostly ignored. As a result, they could not support formulation of an integrated theory. And finally, some scientific, educational, research, executive, social, and managerial implications are provided to facilitate, manipulate, and influence the process of monitoring discourse.

The present study is an attempt to offer a study of the researcher's views regarding the interaction between literature and human discoursal interactions through a comparative, descriptive, and analytical approach. Five variables of discourse experimentation, research and educational consequences, anthropology, pragmatics, and intertextuality are investigated. The results of the study reveal a cause and effect relationship between literature and the human discoursal interactions. From educational and scientific point of view, the study reveals that poetic discourse consists of a creative system of relationships, strategies, and a special methodology for the comprehensive exploration of the nature of human communication. Therefore, the exploration of the literary system would result in the proper and appropriate exploration of the human communication variables, which in turn would influence the decision making in the processes of curriculum development and research orientations in intercultural areas such as teaching foreign languages and literature, translator training, and critical studies in language, literature, and translation. Moreover, the results of the study show that without the application of the literary discoursal strategies and structures, educational and research outlooks in human communication will not work. Since, literature- as a comprehensive social discourse¬- helps the researchers discover and develop gestalt teaching, learning, and problem solving strategies and resources in the area of human interaction and stops the unfavorable separation of sciences. So, to solve the multivariate problems of human educational system, the authorities should assume an interdisciplinary outlook.

This paper intends to offer a comparative, descriptive, and analytical investigation of the interaction between culture, language, and translation through the analysis of translatologists, linguists, and translator's approaches. The results of the study reveal that 67.44% of the researchers have investigated the interaction between language and culture. They believe that language and culture are integrated. Also 76.¬69% of the researchers maintain that human communication and translation have got cultural foundations. Moreover, 35.13% of the investigators believe that investigations in the areas of human communication such as language teaching, literature, and translation influence the nature of language, culture, and people's identity. The study shows that language is developed through culture and vice versa. And successful application of language in the world of language teaching, literature, and translation depends on culture and culture helps human beings to discover and develop teaching, learning, and problem solving strategies in the areas of language teaching, literature, and translation. Therefore, the nature of the data implies a cause and effect relationship between these variables. Then educational planning should include the investigation of the cultural origin of the language and the situations in which it is used.

The main objective of the current study was to investigate application of Immiscible Water Alternating Gas (IWAG) method in Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) process. In order to have a better understanding of the process, water injection as well as immiscible gas injection processes should be separately studied. Black Oil Model (BOM) was employed to reach the final equations required for estimation of pressure and saturation domains. By solving these equations all the reservoir parameters can be determined. The governing equations were discretised using Finite Volume Method (FVM). Implicit Pressure–Explicit Saturation (IMPES) formula was employed to solve the equations. Application of the EOR process was studied simulating a case study by way of the IWAG method. The system equations were solved and related codes were written to simulate the process. Simulation results were compared to those obtained from commercial software CMG. The results confirm a higher oil recovery in IWAG technique when compared to waterflooding and immiscible gas injection processes one by one.