فرزاد نجفی

Heavy metals, like cadmium, lead, and arsenic, harm air, soil, agriculture, and human health. Plants suffer from reduced growth, chlorophyll production, and enzyme activity due to heavy metal exposure. Reactive oxygen species are produced, damaging biological molecules. However, plants have developed resistance mechanisms, including antioxidant stimulation. Flavonoids, complex compounds in plants, enhance resistance to heavy metals. Medicinal plants, rich in secondary metabolites like flavonoids, phenolic compounds, and alkaloids, show resistance to heavy metals. Origanum majorana as a medicinal plant, contains compounds that contribute to its heavy metal resistance. Based on limited studies, medicinal plants, particularly marjoram, have shown greater resistance to environmental stresses due to their secondary metabolites and the ability to produce uncontaminated essential oils in response to heavy metals like cadmium and lead. This study aimed to investigate the biochemical responses and growth of marjoram plants when exposed simultaneously to cadmium and lead, as well as the mutual effects of these two elements on marjoram behavior.

A factorial randomized complete block design experiment with four replications was used to study the effect of Cd in four concentrations (0, 6, 12 and 24 mg.kg-1 soil) as well as Pb in four concentrations (0, 150 300 and 450 mg. Kg-1 soil). The concentrations were determined based on previous reports and a preliminary experiment. Soil was prepared with appropriate amounts of cadmium chloride and lead chloride were added according to the desired concentrations. The contaminated soil was then incubated at field capacity moisture for two months. Seeds have been sown in germination trays. Seedlings at the three to four leaf stage were transferred to pots containing the contaminated soil. Plant harvest took place 42 to 52 days after the transfer to pots, specifically when the plants had just entered the flowering stage. The aboveground parts of the plants were harvested separately, and the roots were carefully removed from the soil. Half of the plants were dried at 105 °C for 24 h to determine the dry weight, Pb and Cd concentrations. The other half of the plants were used to measure biochemical traits including flavonoids, anthocyanins, malondialdehyde, protein, proline and some enzymatic antioxidants. The data was analyzed using a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and the means were compared using the LSD test. A significance level of 95% was applied using SAS 9.2.

In this study, various parameters were measured including the dry weight of aerial parts and roots, concentrations of lead and cadmium in the aerial parts and roots, lipid peroxidation (MDA), flavonoids, anthocyanins, total phenols, proline, protein, and antioxidant enzymes including guaiacol peroxidase (GPX), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), and catalase (CAT). The results of the analysis of variance showed that all the mentioned traits were influenced by the individual effects of lead and cadmium. However, there was no significant interaction between cadmium and lead on proline, protein, GPX, polyphenols, flavonoids, and anthocyanins. The dry weight of aerial parts and roots decreased in the presence of cadmium and lead, while the concentrations of lead and cadmium increased. However, this damage was more pronounced in the presence of cadmium compared to lead. The presence of cadmium in a lead-containing environment had an inhibitory effect on lead uptake by the plant, and vice versa. The highest level of MDA was reported in the combination of lead and cadmium concentrations of 450 and 24 mg/kg, respectively. The analysis of enzyme activity showed that the maximum catalase activity was observed in the combination of 6 and 450 mg/kg of cadmium and lead, respectively, while the minimum activity was found in the control group. Similarly, the highest APX activity was reported in the combination of 24 mg/kg of cadmium and zero lead, while the lowest activity was observed in the control group. The use of cadmium and lead at the highest consumption level compared to the control group resulted in a 204% and 40% increase in GPX activity, respectively. In the analysis of total phenols, flavonoids, anthocyanins, and protein, an increase in cadmium concentration from zero to 24 mg/kg led to a decrease of 52%, 42%, 208%, and 81%, respectively, while protein decreased by 39%. These traits showed an increase of 14%, 14%, 58%, and 40%, respectively, with an increase in lead concentration from zero to 450 mg/kg, while protein decreased by 24%. Based on the results, it appears that the increase in secondary metabolites with the increase in heavy metals has accompanied the plant's response to the prevailing conditions.

The study found that both cadmium and lead negatively affect the dry weight of plants, with cadmium having a greater impact. This reduction is particularly noticeable in photosynthesis, pigments, electron transport chain, and energy production. The highest concentrations of lead and cadmium (24-450 mg/kg) show the maximum decrease. As the concentrations of these elements increase in the growth medium, their concentration in the plants also increases. Lead has lower mobility and tends to accumulate in the roots compared to cadmium. Interestingly, the presence of cadmium inhibits the uptake of lead by the plant, and vice versa. This leads to an average inhibition of 39% for lead uptake by cadmium and 35% for cadmium uptake by lead in the aerial parts. The study also observed an increase in secondary metabolites, which act as antioxidants and help the plant cope with the stresses caused by cadmium and lead. These metabolites may also contribute to osmotic regulation along with the increase in proline. Based on these findings, it seems that these plants can be used in green spaces contaminated with moderate to low levels of cadmium and lead, particularly in mining areas.

Pollution of the biosphere with toxic levels of metals has accelerated dramatically since the beginning of the industrial revolution. Soil pollution by heavy metals including cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) is a global problem, which can cause agricultural lands to become hazardous for wildlife and human populations. Accumulated Cd and Pb in their roots and shoots may also be negatively affect their photosynthesis, growth, and reproduction. Cd and Pb uptake and their effects on plants may be influenced by a variety of factors, e.g. the plant species, cultivar, soil characteristics and etc. Heavy metals such as Cd and Pb may cause the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), damage plant tissue membranes, and inhibit photosynthesis, carbon dioxide assimilation, and growth. Photosynthesis is the fundamental process of energy metabolism and therefore, closely related to the plants growth and productivity. However, it is a sensitive process and an important target of environmental stresses. Plants counteract the harmful effects of heavy metals by a variety of protective mechanisms including immobilization, exclusion, chelation, compartmentalization, osmotic regulation and elevating antioxidant system. Lemon balm (Melissa officinalis L.) is a widely grown aromatic and medicinal plant of the Labiatae family. The plant has various therapeutic properties and is also used to flavor different food products due to its particular taste. Little scientific data exist on the response of this medicinal plant to Cd and Pb stress. Therefore, the objective of this work was to investigate the biological and physiological responses of lemon balm (Melissa officinalis L.) under cadmium and lead stress conditions.

A factorial randomized complete block design experiment with four replications was used to study the effect of Cd in four concentrations (0, 6, 12 and 24 mg.kg-1 soil) as well as Pb in four concentrations (0, 150 300 and 450 mg. Kg-1 soil). Before harvesting, chlorophyll fluorescence, photosynthetic and transpiration rates were measured with fluorescence meter and photosynthetic meter, respectively. Thereafter, plants were harvested and the roots were washed in distilled water. Then, half of the plants were separated into roots and shoots, which were dried at 105 °C for 24 h to determine the dry weight, Cd and Pb concentrations, Cd transfer factor and essential oil content. The other half of the plants were separated into roots and shoots, kept in liquid nitrogen, and then stored in freezer for one week to determine proline and shoot MDA concentrations. Data were subjected to two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the difference between means was compared using LSD test. A significance level of 95% was applied by SAS 9.2.

According to the results, root and shoot dry weight, protein content, photosynthetic rate, transpiration rate and chlorophyll fluorescence were decreased by increasing Cd and Pb concentrations. However, Cd concentration decreased these traits more than Pb. The shoot MDA concentration, essential oil and proline content were enhanced by increasing Cd and Pbconcentrations. The combination of two pollutants (Cd and Pb) together reduces the negative impact of each element alone. Shoot and root Cd and Pb concentrations were increased by increasing Cd and Pbconcentrations. The interaction effect of Cd×Pbapplication showed that increasing Cd concentration decreased root and shoot Pb concentrations and increasing Pb concentration decreased root and shoot Cd concentrations. Cd and Pb were not detected in essential oil. Moreover, the Cd transfer factor was increased with increasing Pb concentration under high Cd concentration levels (12 and 24 mg.kg-1).

This study demonstrated that Cd toxicity is more than Pb toxicity due to its high mobility. There was an antagonistic relationship between Cd and Pb. Furthermore, due to the absence of Cd and Pb in the essential oil, lemon balm may be a suitable plant for areas contaminated with heavy metals especial Cd and Pb.

Vermicompost tea can be extracted under aerated or non-aerated (passive) conditions. This water extractable compound includes: Active microorganisms, primarily Bacteria, Fungi and some Protozoa, Mineral nutrients, Organic acids and other microbial by-products. Considerable variability in the efficacy of compost tea to promote plant growth has been reported in many experiments. The results suggest that the reasons for the beneficial effects of the compound are complex and depend on many factors, including plant species, compost quality, extraction method, and growing conditions. They may have direct and indirect effects on plant growth and development. The indirect effects of humic compounds on soil fertility include: (i) Increase in the soil microbial population including beneficial microorganisms, (ii) Improved soil structure and (iii) Increase in the cation exchange capacity and the pH buffering capacity of the soil. Directly, humic acid compounds may have various biochemical effects either at cell wall and membrane level or in the cytoplasm, including increased photosynthesis and respiration rates in plants, enhanced protein synthesis and hormone-like activities in plants. Satureja khuzistanica Jamzad is an endemic species of the genus Satureja in Iran. It is a valuable medicinal plant because of high concentration of Rosmarinic Acid in the extract. This plant also has other unique growth properties such as high growth under calcareous and poor soils of arid region.
In order to study the effects of different levels of humic acid and vermicompost tea on growth, yield, morphological and phytochemical characters of Satureja khuzistanica, an experiment with factorial arrangement based on randomized complete block design with three replications was conducted in 2013. Factors included of three levels of humic acid (1.5, 2.5 and 3.5 liter per ha.) and vermicompost tea in concentrations of 5% (5:1, water: vermicompost) 10% and 20% which were sprayed on aerial parts of the plants. Parameters like plant height, plant crown, leaf length, leaf width, shoot dry weight, leaf dry weight, oil content, essential oil yield, content of phenolic and flavonoids compounds were studied in this study to evaluate the effects of the treatments on Satureja Khuzistanica.
The results showed that treatments of 3.5 l.ha-1 humic acid 20% vermicompost tea had the maximum dry weight (460 g.m-2 ), leaf dry weight (195.33 g.m-2) and essential oil yield (6.38 g.m-2). The highest essential oil percentage (3.44%) was obtained in the treatment of 1.5 l.ha-1 humic acid 20% vermicompost tea. The maximum content of phenolic and flavonoids compounds were observed in treatments of 2.5 l.ha-1 humic acid 5% vermicompost tea (46.56 µg gallic acid /mg dry extract) and 3.5 l.ha-1 humic acid 5% vermicompost tea (749.13 µg routin /mg dry extract), respectively. The interactions of the humic acid and vermicompost tea effects on plant height, plant crown, leaf length and leaf width were not significant in both years.
Results of this experiment showed that mixed application of humic acid and extract of vermicompost (vermicompost tea) has more positive effects on growth and yield parameters of this plant rather than sole application. Results of Azza et al, (2010) showed that the extract of vermicompost can increase yield, oil content and essential oil yield in Levisticum officinalis. Appropriate amounts of humic acid and vermicompost extract can increase soil organic matter by improving the soil microbial activity and nutrient availability, and this will result in increasing the rate of photosynthesis and plant dry matter so this is a way to ultimately improve the yield, leaf dry weight and the essential oil yield of Satureja khuzistanica. Among the treatments, application of 3.5 l.ha-1 humic acid 20% of vermicompost tea, had the best effects on growth and yield.
Acknowledgements:Hereby we appreciate Iran National Science Foundation (Science Deputy of Presidency) for financial support of this project (Nr.85125.61) and Khoraman and FTSS companies which support this project and Mr.Ali Karimi (graduated student of medicinal plants, Medicinal Plants and Drugs Research Institute of Shahid Beheshti University) who cooperate us in this research.

Despite the importance of oily crops in development of Iran, there are few studies on nutrition with micronutrient in these crops, especially for safflower. Safflower, a deep rooted oilseed crop, is grown in many areas of world because it can be used as oil crop, vegetable, birdfeed and spices. To achieve the acceptable growth and yield of safflower, it needs the sufficient micro- and macronutrient, so that recently, there has been an increased interest in evaluation of nutrient role in quality and quantity of safflower. Application of vermicompost in oil crop production systems of Iran has been increased; which it can improve soil structure by increasing aggregate stability as well as increase in water holding capacity and aeration. On the other hand, micronutrients are nutrients required by plants in small quantities to organize a range of physiological functions. The deficiency micronutrients is widespread in many parts of the country due to cultivation of high yielding varieties, intensive agriculture and increasing use of sulphur free fertilizers in large quantities with concomitant decrease in use of organic manures. There is little information on interaction of vermicompost and micronutrients combination on safflower. thus, this study was conducted to evaluate the effect of combinations of three important micronutrient consisted of sulphur, zinc and boron on yield and yield components as well as dry forage production of safflower in different vermicompost treatments.
Material and In this research, the effect of micronutrient application and vermicompost was examined on yield and yield components of safflower in Agriculture and Natural Resources Research Center of Kerman Province in two Kerman and Bardsir regions. The treatments were included vermicompost factor at two levels (0 and 6 t ha-1) and micronutrients combinations at 12 levels (no use, 100 kg ha-1 S, 200 kg ha-1 S, 3 ml L-1 Zn, 2 ml L-1 B, four twofold and two triplet combinations of the 3 micronutrients). A factorial experiment based on randomized block design (RCBD) was used. Vermicompost and S were used before planting as soil apply, while Zn and B were applied as foliar application. Dry forage at the flowering early and branch number per plant, head number per plant, grain number per head, weight of 1000 grains and grain yield at final ripening were determined. Analysis of variance, means comparisons (LSD at 5% probability level) and correlation coefficient were done in SAS software.
The results showed that application of vermicompost and micronutrient had positive and significant effect on head number per plant, grain number per head, weight of 1000 grains, dry forage and grain yield in both places. These could be attributed to improved soil porosity, water holding capacity and aeration caused by vermicompost. Vermicompost are also known as sources of plant nutrients and can improve soil physicochemical characteristics. Growth and yield of safflower plants in Kerman was significantly more than those in Bardsir, which was probably due to better conditions of soil in Kerman. Kerman had greater amount of nitrogen, potassium and phosphorous as well as higher level of soil organic matter. On average, vermicompost application at 6 t ha-1 was associated with 347 and 54 kg.ha-1 increasing in dry forage and grain yield, respectively. In the other hand, the highest dry forage and grain yield were obtained from plants treated with 200 kg ha-1 S, Zn and B as 2104 and 1433 and 1433 kg ha-1, respectively. Stimulated photosynthetic activity and synthesis of chloroplast and protein in result of micronutrient application might be reason of greater yield in these treatments. The grain number had the highest correlation with forage production and yield.
In general, the result of this study revealed that in both places, vermicompost and micronutrient application had positive interaction, so that the greatest forage and grain production were observed in vermicompost application with triple combination of S, Zn and B.

Soil fertility refers to the ability of the soil to supply essential plant nutrients and soil water in adequate amounts and proportions for suitable plant growth. Organic fertilizers are derived from animal or plant matter such as cow manure. Organic fertilizers involve a slower release rate of nutrients than conventional watersoluble fertilizers and it decreases nutrient losses and enhances nutrient-use efficiency (Gliessman, 1998). Biological fertilizers contain living cells of efficient strains of microorganisms such as Azospirillum, Azotobacter Biofertilizers enhance microbial processes in the soil which augment the extent of availability of nutrients in a form easily assimilated by plants. Bio-fertilizers can be ranked in various groups based on their function (Manoly, 2008). Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) is an important medicinal plant from the family Asteraceae that is commonly used to serve various medicinal purposes. This species is one of the most ancient medicinal herbs known to mankind (Baghalian et al., 2008).
In order to study the growth characteristics, flower yield and essential oil of chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) as a medicinal plant affected by different fertilizer treatments, an experiment was conducted at the Agricultural Research Station College of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad during the 2009-2010 growing season. An experiment was conducted based on a randomized complete block design with four replications. Treatments were chemical fertilizer (100 kg.ha-1 urea, 60 kg.ha-1 K (K2O) and 100 kg.ha-1 P (P2O5), mycorrhiza, Nitroxin and Nitroxin mycorrhiza. K and P fertilizers added to the soil after land preparation. N was applied to the soil at three stages such as after planting time, one month after seedling emergence and before flowering stage. At planting time, 150 g soil with mycorrhiza fungi (Glomus intraradices) per plant was used under seed and seeds were inoculated with Nitroxin before planting time. Studied traits were height, flower number, flower diameter, dry weight of flower, fresh weight of flower and essential oil percentage and essential oil yield at six cuttings and total fresh and dry weights of flower and essential oil yield of chamomile. For statistical analysis, analysis of variance (ANOVA) and least significant difference test (LSD) at a 5% probability level were performed using SAS version 9.1.
The results showed that the effect of plant height stem, number, diameter, dry yield and fresh yield of flower, essential oil yield at the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th cuttings and total flower number, total fresh yield and total dry yield of flower and essential oil yield of chamomile. The maximum flower number at different cuttings was observed in mycorrhiza Nitroxin. The maximum total flower number was recorded in mycorrhiza Nitroxin with 8556.67 flowers.m-2; it was higher than chemical fertilizer, mycorrhiza and Nitroxin up to 36, 107 and 18%, respectively. The highest essential oil yield was recorded in mycorrhiza Nitroxin with 4.4 g.m-2.
The results showed that growth and yield of flower and essential oil of chamomile were significantly affected by fertilizer treatments. So, it seems that the integrated application of mycorrhiza Nitroxin could be considered for growth and yield enhancement of this valuable medicinal plant based on sustainable agriculture.

Thymus daenensis Celak is one of the most important medicinal plants and endemic species in Iran which has a large dispersion and wide distribution in the highlands of the Zagros Mountains. In this study, diversity of morphological traits and oil content (w/w) was evaluated among and within six natural habitats with diverse climates (Mehran, Bijar, Shekarnab, Ghateralan, Ghiagh and Semirom) .Beside, factors affecting on essential oil yield were determined by path coefficients analysis. The results indicated significant variation among populations for morphological traits. Cluster analysis divided individual plants into four independent groups corresponding to their geographical origin. The mean oil content was varied between 1.53-4.28% among populations. Path coefficient analysis showed that, among studied traits, inflorescences length and leaf length had highest direct effect while, bract length and plant height had highest indirect effect on the percentage of oil. Finally among the studied populations, population of Ilamis was suitable to be used in breeding and domestication programs due to good growth performance, adaptability to stress conditions and within population variation.

Sage, a popular medicinal plant, is widely used in food and pharmaceutical industries. This research was aimed to study the effects of organic and biological fertilizers on physiological characteristics, yield, and essential oil content of sage (Salvia officinalis L.) under different moisture conditions. The study was conducted in a field experiment in split-plot design with 15 treatments and three replications at Tarbiat Modares University in 2012. Treatments included three irrigation levels (irrigation after depletion of 40% available water, irrigation after depletion of 60% available water, and irrigation after depletion of 80% available water) and five different soil fertility systems (control (no fertilizer) (F0), chemical fertilizer (urea) (Ur), nitrogen fixing bacteria (NFB), vermicompost (V), vermicompost nitrogen fixing bacteria (Vぐ), allocated to main plots and subplots, respectively. Results indicated that the irrigation regimes had significant effect (p 0.01) on all measured traits. Chlorophyll a, b, and dry matter declined with increasing of water stress, but sugar, proline and essential oil content increased. Results showed that the highest values of all measured traits were related to the vermicompost nitrogen fixing bacteria treatment. In addition, results showed that the highest essential oil percentage (1.10%) and essential oil yield (20.50 l ha-1) were obtained in vermicompost nitrogen fixing bacteria treatment under moderate drought stress (I2).

The Iranian Thymus daenensis subsp. daenensis is rich in monoterpene phenols (especially thymol and carvacrol). This research was conducted to isolate and characterize the plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPRs) from rhizosphere of T. daenensis. PGPRs were screened based on some physiological traits including IAA production, phosphate solubilization, and siderophore compounds production abilities, and also seed germination and vigor tests. Twenty one rhizobacteria were isolated from the rhizosphere samples of T. daenensis which grow widely in Iran, and their effect on seed germination properties was studied in a completely randomized block design with three replications. We could characterize four isolates for PGPRs activity based on physiological and germination assays. TDE3, TDE16 and TDE20 isolates had the phosphate solubilization and siderophores production abilities. TDE4 (Achromobacter spiritinus) was the only isolated bacteria which significantly improved the SGR and VI of T. daenensis seeds. These four isolates have the potential to be used as PGPRs in cultivation of T. daenensis.

Pumpkin is one the most important cultivated medicinal plants. Because of high quality oil it uses as edible and herbal medicine. To find out the effects of different rates of pelleted animal manure and urea levels and some micronutrients on morphophysiological characteristics and oil yield of medicinal pumpkin, a split plot experiment based on RCBD with three replicates was conducted at the Research Farm of Abouraihan Campus, University of Tehran. The pelleted animal manure and urea with four levels (150 kg urea, 50 kg urea.5 tone animal manure, 100 kg urea.5 tone animal manure and 150 kg urea.5 tone animal manure) were considered as the main plot and micronutrients with three levels (1000, 2000 and 3000 (mg. kg-1); including iron, zinc, manganese from a chelate source and boron from boric acid source) were considered as sub plots. results showed main factor had significant effect on plant height, sub branches, female flower, oil percentage and oil yield (p0.01). 150 Kg Urea.5 tone animal manure as pellet had most oil yield (481.8 kg.h-1). 2000 mg. kg-1 of micronutrients had most female flower (5.14), oil percentage (46.5%) and oil yield (431.6 kg.h-1).Overall results showed applying 150Kg Urea.5 tone plleted animal manure with 2000 (mg.kg-1) of micronutrients could be suggested as the best option for achievement of the best morphophysiologial characteristics and oil yield of pumpkin medicinal plant.

To find out the effects of Urea and animal manure as pellet and some microelements on total dry matter and physiological indices of medicinal pumpkin a split plot experimental design based on a randomized complete block with three replicates was conducted at University of Tehran, college of Abouraihan. The animal manure and Urea as pellet with four levels (150 Kg Urea, 50 Kg Urea.5 tone animal manure, 100 Kg Urea.5 tone animal manure and 150 Kg Urea.5 tone animal manure) as main factor and microelements with three levels (1000, 2000 and 3000 ppm) including Iron, Zinc, Manganese in chelate form and Boron in Boric Acid form as minor factor were considered. The results showed that use of pelleted manure and urea after 30 days had significant effect on total dry matter (p

Secondary metabolites play an important role in plant responses to environmental stresses and some of these compounds are significantly increased under stress conditions. The use of biotic and abiotic elicitors for promoting the production of secondary metabolites reduces the processing time to achieve high concentrations of the metabolite. In this study, the effects of pathogenic fungus, Rhizoctonia solani (AG2-2) SBUka2, as biotic elicitor, were studied to better understanding of plant reactions to microorganisms and enhance yield and quality of secondary metabolites of Thymus daenensis in tissue culture. In this way, rosmarinic acid and caffeic acid contents of two ecotypes (Ilam and Isfahan) of T. daenensis were determined by High Performance Thin Layer Chromatogharapghy (HPTLC), while essential oil variations were studied by Gas Chromatoghraphy-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). The results showed that in the presence of R. solani, rosmarinic acid content of inoculated plant was decreased by 26.82% and 8.25% in Ilam and Isfahan ecotypes, respectively whereas caffeic acid content decreased to 4.51 and 4.16, respectively. The analysis of essential oils exhibited that in the presence of R. solani, the yield of essential oils increased by 33% and 20% in Isfahan and Ilam types, respectively. In addition, the content of some essential oil compositions such as thymol and carvacrol were increased in infected plants whereas other compounds such as para-cymene and gama-terpinene were decreased.

Fertilizers are the key components which provide plant nutrients'' needs in recent years (Omid Jangir & Sing، 1996; Kapoor et al.، 2007). In many cases، using chemical fertilizers has different negative environmental effects such as soil، water and air pollution، which increase environmental hazardous and production costs (Jangir & Sing، 1996; Kapoor et al.، 2007). Biological activities are markedly enhanced by microbial interactions in the rhizosphere of plants (Kapoor et al.، 2007). Many investigators have successfully used mycorrhiza to increase the availability of immobilized phosphate and thus minimize the use of mineral fertilizers. Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) can better enable a plant to withstand environmental stresses such as drought and salinity. AMF interacts with pathogens and other rhizosphere inhabitants which affect plant health and nutrition. More importantly، mycorrhizal fungi are capable of dissolving weakly soluble soil minerals، especially phosphate، by releasing acids or increasing CO2 partial pressure (Gupta et al.، 2002; Gosling et al.، 2006; Kapoor et al.، 2007). Therefore، they have the ability to enhance host plant uptake of relatively immobile nutrients particularly P، S and Zn. Limited water supply is also another major environmental constraint in the productivity of crop and medicinal plants. Moisture deficiency induces various physiological and metabolic responses such as stomatal closure، decline in growth rate and photosynthesis (Flexas and Medrano، 2002). The results of Baher et al. (2002) showed that greater soil water stress decreased plant height and total fresh and dry weight of Satureja hortensis.

In order to study the effects of mycorrhiza inoculation and different irrigation levels on the growth، quantitative and qualitative yield of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) and ajwain (Trachyspermum ammi L.)، a field experiment was conducted as factorial based on randomized complete block design with three replications at the Agricultural Research Station، the Ferdowsi University of Mashhad، Iran during two growing seasons of 2009-2010 and 2010-2011. Mycorrhiza inoculation (with and without inoculation) and irrigation levels (1000، 2000 and 3000 m3. ha-1) were allocated to the first and the second factors، respectively. Several criteria such as yield components (including branch numbers per plant، umbel number per branch، umbellet number per umbel، seed number per umbellet and 1000-seed weight)، biological yield، seed yield، harvest index، essential oil content and essential oil yield of fennel and ajwain were measured.

Results indicated that the simple effects of mycorrhiza inoculation and irrigation levels on the biological and seed yields، harvest index (HI)، yield components، essential oil content and essential oil yield of fennel and ajwain were significant (p≤0. 01). The maximum biological yield of fennel (5. 3 g. m-2) and ajwain (4. 3 g. m-2) were observed in mycorrhiza inoculation. Mycorrhiza inoculation enhanced seed yield of fennel and ajwain up to 46% and 97% compared with control، respectively. The highest essential oil content of fennel (4. 2%) and ajwain (3. 0%) were obtained in mycorrhiza inoculation. The highest and the lowest seed yield of fennel and ajwain were observed in 3000 m3. ha-1 (1. 6 and 0. 9 g. m-2) and 1000 m3. ha-1 (1. 4 and 0. 7 g. m-2) irrigation levels، respectively. The maximum essential oil content of fennel and ajwain were obtained in 3000 m3. ha-1 (4. 0% and 3. 4%) and the minimum were for 1000 m3. ha-1 (3. 2% and 2. 9%). Interaction effects among mycorrhiza inoculation and different irrigation levels on the biological yield، HI and some yield components of fennel (such as branch number per plant، umbel numbel per branch، umbellet number per umbel and seed number per umbellet) and ajwain (such as umbellet number per umbel، seed number per umbellet and 1000 seed weight) scale fern number، seed number and 1000 seed weight of ajwain were significant (p≤0. 05). Inoculation with mycorrhiza، enhanced root development and resulted in the availability of moisture and nutrients، particularly phosphorus. On the other hand، these fertilizers are the cause of production of many growth regulators for the plant. The higher irrigation levels increased photosynthesis and dry matter production due to vegetative growth and photosynthesis area of the plants.

In order to evaluate the growth characteristics, yield components, seed yield and essential oil yield of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare L.) as affected by different fertilizer treatments, a field experiment was conducted based on a randomized complete block design with three replications at the Agricultural Research Station of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad during the growing season of 2009-2010. Treatments were: F1: chemical fertilizer (N, P and K were used with 100, 60 and 100 kg ha-1, respectively.), F2: biofertilizer+1/2 F1, F: biofertilizer, F4: cow manure (30 t ha-1) and F5: F4+1/2 F1. Plant height, yield components such as branch number, umbel, umbelet, seed and 1000-seed weight, fresh and dry biological yields, seed yield, essential oil content and essential oil yield of fennel were measured. The results indicated that the impact of the fertilizer treatments was significant (p≤0,01) on plant height, yield components, seed yield, fresh and dry biological yields and essential oil yield of fennel. The highest yield components with 10 branches per plant, 241,1 umbels per branch, 15,1 umbelets per umbel, 14,8 seeds per umbelet and 2,9 g were observed in the chemical fertilizer+cow manure treatment. The maximum seed yield with 296,5 g m-1 was achieved with the chemical fertilizer+cow manure treatment. Increasing of seed yield in F5 treatment was 15, 52, 111 and 297% compared to chemical fertilizer, cow manure, chemical fertilizer+biofertilizer and biofertilizer, respectively. So, integrated management of organic inputs such as cow manure with other fertilizers could be considered as an ecological approach that can improve yield and bring sustainability for these valuable species.

Progressive usage of medicinal plants has necessitated their mass production using the minimum amounts of chemical inputs. To find out the effects of urea and pelleted animal manure and some micronutrients on yield and its components in pumpkin، a split plot experiment based on RCBD with three replicates was conducted at the Research Farm of Abouraihan Campus، University of Tehran in 2011. The pelleted animal manure and urea with four levels (150 kg urea، 50 kg urea+3. 5 tone animal manure، 100 kg urea+1. 5 tone animal manure and 150 kg urea+1. 5 tone animal manure) were considered as the main plot and micronutrients with three levels (1000، 2000 and 3000 (mg kg-1); including iron، zinc، manganese from a chelate source and boron from boric acid source) were consideredas sub plots. Analysis of variance and comparison of means showed that usage of pelleted manure with urea was superior to using urea alone. The maximum fruit and seed yield، number of seeds perfruit and1000seed weight were observed where 1. 5 tone pelleted animal manure+150 kg urea with 2000 (mg kg-1) of micronutrients was applied. Micronutrients did not show any significant effect on fruit number per square meter، seed dried weight per fruit، and single fruit weight. Moreover، the interaction effect of pelleted animal manure plus urea and micronutrients on immature seeds percent was significant at 1% level. Where 150 kg urea+1. 5 tone animal manure in combination with 3000 (mg kg-1) of micronutrients was applied، the lowest percentage of immature seeds (22. 6%) was achieved. Overall، applying 150 kg urea+1. 5 tone animal manure in combination with 2000 (mg kg-1) of micronutrients could be suggested as the best option for achievement of the maximum yield characteristics of pumpkin medicinal plant.

In order to evaluate the effect of different seed priming treatments on germination parameters improvement in Pisumsativum L.a factorial experiment was conducted in completely randomized design with four replications in seed science and technology laboratory of agriculture faculty, Shahrekord University in 2013. The experimental factors were consisted as priming types (osmopriming, halopriming and hydropriming) and priming times (12, 24 and 36 hours). Results showedthat different priming treatments had significant effect on radicle length, shoot length, shoot dry weight, radicle dry weight, germination percentage, germination rate, relative germination, vigor indexesIn addition to,priming times had significant effect in all measured traits except germination rate Themaximum radicle length, germination percentage, relative germination and vigor index I achieved with concentration of 1.1 MPa PEG and 24 hours. The maximum shoot length and germination rate obtained with distilled water treatment, 24 hours and concentration of 0.7 MPa PEG, 24 hours, respectively. The lowest amount of all measured traits was observed in concentration 1.2 MPa KNO3 with 36 hours. In conclusion, the high doses of PEGwith 24 hoursis suitable for germination improvement of pea seeds.

Nepetabracteata Benth is a medicinal plant belongs to the Lamiaceae family which wildly grows in Khorasan province. This herb is used by the indigenous people as afolkloric medicine in Khorasan. This paper aimed to study the situation and application of this plant in traditional medicine of Khorasan province. Current study was done by questionnaire and interview with apothecaries andvillagers living near the natural habitats of N.bracteatain spring to summer 2012. Results of this study indicated that the aerial parts, especially the flowers of N.bracteata are used by the indigenous people for treatmentof many diseases, including asthma, cold, headache, and stress. In addition, this herb has used as a sedative. The flowers of N.bracteataare used for treatment of respiratorydiseases, including asthma, lungspasms, seasonalallergies, and coughsdue tocold, chesttightnessorcongestion, wheezing, chronic inflammation of the respiratory tracts, tonsillar infection, even lung cancer, neurological disease, stress,digestivediseases including stomachache, colic, stomachandintestinal infections, and forremoving body weakness and strengthening theimmune system, preventing fromhair loss and relievingmenstrualirregularity. The most common preparation methods are brewing, boiling and distillation. This paper having investigated the native and traditional usages of N.bracteata which can provide valuable research fields for researchers to remove disambiguation about using this plant and provide its widespread domestication and utilization field based on native knowledge and modern technologies.

Medical pumpkin is a medicinal plant that has a special place in the pharmaceutical industry, and evaluation of quantitative and qualitative yield is a under different agronomic treatments is necessary. Investigating of quality/quantities yield of oil and morphological traits of Cucurbita pepo. affected of planting date and row arrangement. This study was done as split plot on complete randomized blocks design with 3 replications at Research field of Aburaihan College, University of Tehran in 2010 and 2011 years. Treatments were included 3 main plots of planting dates (20 Apr, 21 May and 21 June) and 3 sub-plots of row arrangement (1, 1.5 and 2 meter between two rows). In this study evaluated 1000 seeds weight, seeds number in fruit, seeds weight per fruit, seed yield, seed produce index, oil percentage and oil yield. The year had not significant effect on any traits expect of oil percentage and seeds number in fruit. The interaction of planting date and row arrangement were significant in all quality and quantity traits. Maximum of seed yield, seed oil percent and oil yield were obtained in 1 meter row spacing21 may treatment and 1.5 meter21 June treatment. Maximum of unsaturated fatty acids percent and minimum of saturated fatty acids percent were obtained in planting date of June with 1.5 and 2 meter row spacing. According to significant effect of row arrangement and planting date on seed and oil yield of medical pumpkin, quality and quantity growth followed economic yield of this plant could be improved by using appropriate agronomic management.

Prediction of the leaf area is essential in crop simulation models. The objective of this study was to find relationships between leaf area index (LAI) and numbers of leaves (NL), leaf dry weight (LDW), leaf fresh weight (LFW), number of nodes (NN) and plant height (PH), in Pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo L.). For this purpose, an experiment was conducted using three planting dates (20 April, 21 May, 21 June) at the research field of Aburaihan Campus, the University of Tehran, Pakdasht, Tehran, Iran, in 2009-2010 cropping season. The experimental design was randomized complete block with four replications. Sampling was performed during the whole growing season. In each sampling LA, NL, LDW, LFW, NN and PH, were measured. Various equations were used to describe relationships between LAI and aforementioned characteristics. The best result was obtained a simple ln-transformed linear equation {ln(y)= a+b×ln(x)}. Results showed that significant relationships were found between LAI and LA (R2 = 90), LAI and NL (R2 = 90), LAI and NN (R2 = 90), LAI and LDW (R2 = 98) and LAI and LFW (R2 = 98). These equations LAI can be used for estimation in simulation models of Pumpkin as well as for the fast and easy estimation of LAI, especially where there is no LAI-meter available.