محسن مجتهدی

 The increase in the cost of the diet, especially the protein part, has caused the desire of producer and researchers to use by-products. The use of animal waste not only reduces the cost of feed but also reduces the entry of contaminants into the environment. Hydrolyzed feathers, meat meal, bone meal, poultry by-product meal (PBM) and fish oil are some of the by-products used in poultry, dairy cattle and other livestock diet. Also, the use of pelleted feed in broiler chicken is increasing, because it produces less dust, improves digestibility, reduces transportation costs, and improves performance indicators such as feed consumption and decrease feed conversion ratio. Sodium bentonite (SB) is one of the substances that has been used as pellet binder in feed. Several studies have evaluated the effects of the addition of SB and had beneficial results on pelleting physical properties such as pellet durability index (PDI) and pellet hardness. Addition of active SB as a pellet binder in wheat-soybean meal-based diets has increased the relative electrical energy usage (REEU) and decreased the feed conversion ratio. However, studies on the use of different levels of PBM and SB as a pellet binder in broiler chicken diets are very limited, the aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of pellet binder levels of SB in diets containing different amounts of PBM on performance, carcass traits and blood metabolites of Ross 308 broiler chickens in finisher period.

Treatments were assigned in a completely randomized design based on a factorial arrangement of 3 levels of SB conditioning time (0, 1.5 and 3%) × 3 levels of PBM (0, 5 and 10%). Experimental diets were balanced based on Ross 308 recommendations for finisher period (24-42 d) by using UFFDA software. In the present experiment PBM and pellet binder of SB samples were prepared from MegaFaravar Co., Iran. Ingredients of diets were ground through a 2-mm screen size in a hammer mill. All diets mixed in a double-shaft mixer and transferred to super conditioner with 82◦C for 10s, and then pelleted through a 3-mm die. After pelleting of feed produced, 3 replications of each treatment with 3-minute intervals were sampled from the cooler part of the pellet machine. The PDI, hardness test and REEU related to experimental diets was measured. Also, a total of 360 24-day-old male chicks were individually weighted and allocated to 9 treatments of 4 replicates (10 birds in each replication). Feed intake (FI), average daily gain (ADG) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were recorded. On 42 day, 2 birds per pen were randomly euthanized by cervical dislocation. Carcass characteristics and relative weight of small intestinal segments were measured. Total protein, glucose, albumin, lipoproteins (HDL, LDL) were determined by using autoanalyzer device and commercial kits.

Addition of 1.5% SB improved and the use of PBM due to its high fat content reduced the quality characteristics of the pellet that due to their strong colloidal properties and giving rise to a thixotropic gelatinous substance. Likewise, different levels of SB as a pellet binder and PBM did not change the ADG and FCR (P <0.05). However, the use of different levels of PBM with and without SB reduced FI (P<0.05). Also, the relative weight of carcass, breast and thigh was not affected by experimental treatments (P <0.05). Abdominal fat increased significantly in the groups receiving PBM (P <0.05). Amino acid imbalances in PBM probably increase deamination and conversion of amino acids to fat. Significant reduction in duodenum and ileum length was observed in the group containing 3% SB and 10% PBM (P <0.05). Also, the level of 10% PBM with and without SB increased the concentration of blood lipids. Blood lipids concentration have a positive correlation with weight and feed as an environmental factor affects its amount.

In general, the results of this experiment showed that application of PBM as a source of protein with adequate nutritional value up to 5% without negative effects on performance for use in pelleted diet of broilers at high levels when soybean meal is expensive and or not available, it is possible and useable. Also, commercial sodium bentonite can be used as a pellet binder to increase the quality of pellets up to 1.5%. The need for further studies on the simultaneous use of sodium bentonite as a pellet binder and PBM are recommended to ensure the results obtained in other broiler chicken breeding periods.

The use of agricultural and food industry by-products in animal feed leads to a reduction in breeding costs. In addition application of agricultural waste in poultry feed also reduces the environmentally harmful effects. One of these by-products is pistachio green peel, which is produced in food industries. Common pistachio (common pistachio in the market) with the scientific name Pistacia vera is a plant of the genus Anacardiaceae. Iran is the world's largest pistachio producer with 58% of the world's pistachio production. Research has shown that about four hundred thousand tons of pistachio by-products are produced annually in Iran and large volumes in the harvest season and high humidity of these products cause environmental pollution and pistachio orchards. Pistachio green peel has a parenchymal and fibrous structure and contains water, sugars, proteins, fats, minerals, vitamins, color compounds and terpenes. Green pistachio skin contains 4425.45 Kcal/kg of gross energy, 32.64% of dry matter, 11.24% of crude protein, 15.38% of crude fiber, 13.13% of ash, 5.79% of ether extract, 1.08 of calcium, 0.11% of phosphorus, 0.31% of magnesium, 4.44% of potassium. The concentrations of iron, manganese, copper and zinc in pistachio green peel are 660.68, 23.6, 16.23 and 5.27 mg/kg, respectively. There are significant amounts of alpha-pinene, alpha-terpinolene, flavonoids and phenolic compounds. Food sources rich in phenolic compounds have a set of physiological properties including antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-mutagenicity, lipoprotein oxidation inhibitor and have platelet aggregation, anti-inflammatory activity  and strengthen the immune response. The use of pistachio green peel extract improved the growth performance of broiler chickens, blood lipids and abdominal fat. The use of pistachio green skin extract in the diet of broiler infected with Staphylococcus aureus improved growth performance, increased antibody titer against sheep erythrocytes, decreased blood lipids and microbial population of the gastrointestinal tract of broilers. Therefore, the aim of this research was to investigate the effect of Green Pistacia of kallequchi and it’s processed with urea on growth performance, blood indices, immune response and jejunum morphology of broiler chickens.

A total of 280 male broilers were randomly distributed in 28 experimental units including 7 treatments, 4 replicates and 10 chicks each. The experimental diets consisted of the levels of 0, 1.5, 3, and 5% of the raw and processed green hull of kallequchi pistachio. The broilers were fed with three dietary programs including starter (1-10 days), grower (11-24 days), and finisher (25-42 days). At the end of each period, the body weight gain and feed consumption were recorded and the feed conversion ratio was calculated. Two birds of each replicate were slaughtered and their blood was gathered to analyze the biochemical blood indices at 42 days of age. The data were analyzed with SAS software and the mean was compared with the Tukey test at 0.05.

The addition of green hull of pistachio and its processed to diets cause a decrease in the feed conversion ratio during the starter and the whole period of the experiment (P≤0.05). In the starter period, adding 3% of the green hull of the pistachio increased the body weight gain compared to the control (P <0.05). The pistachio green hull increased total antibody and immunoglobulin G antibody titer against sheep red blood cells compared to control (P≤0.05). Experimental diets decreased serum cholesterol and LDL concentrations compare to control (P≤0.05). The green hull of kallequchi pistachio and its processed increased the villus height and decreased villus width and the ratio of height to crypt depth compared to the control (P≤0.05). Different levels of kallequchi pistachio green hull and its processed increased relative weight of the breast, heart, burs fabricius and decreased abdominal fat compared to control (P≤0.05). The same findings were reported by researchers that pistachio green hull extract decreased blood lipids and increased the immune response of broiler chickens (Yousefi et al., 2018; Hosseini Vashan et al., 2020).

It is concluded that adding green hull of kallequchi pistachio up to 5% into broiler diets may improve growth performance, however, the addition of 3% could reduce cholesterol, FCR and improve the immune response of broiler chickens.

Nutrition and feedstuffs are the main part of the costs in the breeding of roiler chicekn. Introduce of new feedstuffs and agricultural wastes as part of the diet can be an effective step in reducing production costs. The use of dried surplus mulberry due to its valuable nutrients can be effective in poultry nutrition.The purpose of this experiment was to investigate the effects of using different levels of dried surplus mulberry and multi-enzyme supplementation on growth performance, carcass characteristics, blood indices, immune response and intestinal morphology in broiler chickens.

Three hundred twenty 1-day-old Ross 308 broiler chicks were used in a completely randomized design with factorial arrangement. The experimental treatments included 4 levels of mulberry (0, 2.5, 5, 7.5- %) and 2 levels of multi-enzyme (0 and 0.1%). Eight dietary treatments had 4 replicates and 10 birds in each replicate. At 42 days of age, 2 chickens were slaughtered from each replicate and blood samples and carcass coonents were taken. In order to evaluate the intestinal morphology, a 1 cm piece of chickens's jejunum was collected and fixed in formalin.

Resutls: 

The results were revealed that interaction effects in diet contained 7.5% of dried surplus mulberry compared to 2.5% of mulberry increased the amount of feed intake at the starter period (0-10 days; p<0.05). The carcass efficiency was higher in birds fed 2.5% of mulberry compared to other treatments. The treatment with 5 and 7.5% dried surplus mulberry with enzyme decreased abdominal fat percentage and increased the percentage of burs of fabricus, spleen and anti-SRBC titer compared to control group (p<0.05). The carcass efficiency and abdominal fat percentages were affected by the enzyme supplementation (p<0.05). The treatments of 5 and 7.5% dried surplus mulberry with enzyme, increased the villus height and absorption area of intestine in comparison to control group (p<0.05). The interaction effects of dried surplus mulberry and multi-enzyme were significantly decreased cholesterol, LDL and increased HDL concentration in comparison to control group (p<0.05).

It is concluded that using dried mulberry surplus with enzyme may decrease blood lipid and improve immune response and intestine morphology without effect on growth performance of broiler chickens.

Pomegranate (Punica granatum) seed pulp is one of the wastes of agricultural conversion industries that has been increasingly used in recent years due to its antioxidant properties in animal nutrition. Pomegranate seed pulp contains polyphenolic compounds that mainly contain ellagic acid, punicalagin and punicallin, which have antioxidant properties and prevent the peroxidation of fats and the activity of free radicals. In addition to polyphenolic compounds, pomegranate seeds contain estrogens such as "estradiol, estrone and estriol" and in lower concentrations also contain testosterone, beta-sitosterol and coumestrol, but there are many reports about its side effects on the physiology and metabolism of ruminants. Due to the role of estrogens in lipid metabolism, pomegranate seed pulp as an estrogen-rich plant source may be able to mimic the regulatory role of endogenous estrogens on metabolism and reproduction. In this study, the estrogenic effects of pomegranate seed pulp on serum estradiol concentration and other blood and antioxidant variables of dry non-pregnant Saanen goats were investigated.

In this experiment, 18 non-pregnant dry Saanen goats in 3rd to 4th parity number with average weight of 44.85 ± 5.16 kg were used in a completely randomized design with 3 treatments and 6 replications. Experimental treatments included: 1) control treatment 2) Basal diet with 12% of pomegranate seed pulp 3) Basal diet with 12% of pomegranate seed pulp + ozone gas (estrogen removal agent from pomegranate). Blood parameters of estradiol, albumin, direct bilirubin, total bilirubin, creatinine, glucose, betahydroxybutyrate, urea, uric acid, blood urea nitrogen, alkaline phosphatase, aspartate and alanine aminotransferase, Triglycerides, HDL, LDL and plasma antioxidant factors of MDA and TAC were measured. Experimental data were statistically analyzed by SAS software with mixed procedure as repeated data over time.

Based on the results, the parameters of standard estradiol concentration and the area under the serum estradiol concentration curve increased (33.36 pg.ml-1 and 605.12 cm2 respectively) significantly during the estrus cycle under the influence of treatment 2 (p <0.05). Ozone gas in treatment 3 significantly reduced these variables (28.13 and 543.91) compared to treatment 2 and was not significantly different from the control (25.56 and 515.12). Blood parameters other than phosphorus and some antioxidant variables were not significantly affected by experimental treatments, indicating insufficient estrogen intake to disrupt homeostasis of blood parameters at level of 12% Replacement of pomegranate seed pulp with wheat bran.

Generally, the level of 12% of pomegranate seed pulp in the studied physiological stage, did not have significant negative effects on normal metabolic parameters of Saanen goats. Elimination of the effect of estrogen in treatment 3 indicates that ozone gas is able to diminish the effect of dietary phytoestrogens.

This study was to investigate the effect of Portulaca oleracea L. extract(POE) on performance, carcass characteristics, immune response, blood indices and intestinal morphology in broilers under heat stress. 200 Ross 308 single-day-old chicks were used in a completely randomized design with 5 treatments, 4 replications and 10 chicks. Experimental groups were: negative control (no heat stress), four groups under heat stress (positive control), 250, 500 and 750mg of POE per kg diet. Results showed that using POE increased feed intake and body weight compared to the control (P <0.05). Chicks fed POE had lower feed conversion ratio than positive control group (P<0.05). Addition of POE to broiler diet had no effect on relative weight of carcass components including breast, thigh, spleen, bile, pancreas and abdominal fat. The POE reduced the relative weight of heart and liver compared to the positive control and the relative weight of bursa was higher in the chicks fed the POE (P<0.05). The POE increased total antibody titer against sheep red blood cells. Using the POE in broiler diet had no effect on plasma concentration albumin and protein, but the lowest concentration of cholesterol, triglyceride, LDL and highest HDL were observed broilers fed 750 POE. The activity of alkaline phosphatase, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase and lactate dehydrogenase enzymes decreased during heat stress compared to negative control. POE increased villus height and absorption area compared to control(P<0.05). It is concluded that using POE reduced plasma concentration of cholesterol, LDL, and plasma MDA in broilers under heat stress.

Introduction:

products such as sugar beet pulp and various types of brans are rich sources of fibers, each with different percentages of soluble and insoluble fibers. Ostrich (Struthio camelus) has a long rectum (about 8 meters) that occupies about 57 % of the length of its gastrointestinal tract, but in the broiler chicken the rectum is only about 3 % of gut tract. The microorganisms in the ostrich's large intestine can digest 38% of cellulose and 68% of hemicellulose. The dietary fiber is divided into two types of water-soluble and water-insoluble. The water-insoluble fibers are including cellulose, lignin and a part of hemicellulose. Due to the higher passage rate of the digestive tract, they are less fermentable than soluble fibers. Water-soluble fibers are mainly including pectin, gum, and mucilage. Soluble fibers reduce the contact of enzymes with digesta, due to increase viscosity, thereby reducing digestion and absorption of nutrients in the gastrointestinal tract. Due to the fact that the effect of soluble and insoluble fibers in the digestive tract is different from each other and so far no research has been done on the effect of fiber source in ostriches. This study was aimed to determine the nutritional value and digestibility of nutrients of diets containing two fiber sources soluble and insoluble in ostrich chicks.     

Materials and Methods :

In order to evaluate the feasibility of using the higher levels of soluble and insoluble fibers in ostrich’s diet, this experiment was undertaken using 30 ostrich chicks in a completely randomize design with 5 treatments and 6 replicates in each treatments (one bird in each replicate) in three periods; prestarter (1- 2 months), starter (2- 4 months) and grower (4-6 months). The experimental treatments were as follows: 1-Control diet with standard fiber level, 2- Treatment contains 2% more soluble fiber than control (sugar beet pulp as the source of soluble fiber), 3- Treatment contains 4% more soluble fiber than control (Sugar beet pulp as a source of soluble fiber), 4- Treatment contains 2% more insoluble fiber than control (wheat bran as a source of insoluble fiber) and 5- Treatment contains 4% more insoluble fiber than control (wheat bran as a source of insoluble fiber). A total 30 ostrich chicks were reared at an average weight of 3082± 202.37 grams in cages. In order to determine the digestibility of nutrients, AME and AMEn, the total excreta were collected. Nutrients contents of feed and excreta were measured according to AOAC (1997) methods. The raw energy of feed and excreta was measured by the calorimeter bomb apparatus. Megazim kit was used to measure the total dietary fiber (AOAC Official Method 991.43). The amount of soluble fiber was calculated by subtracting the insoluble fiber from total dietary fiber. Data were analyzed using SAS software (2002) using mixed procedure for repeated measurements with a significance level of 0.05 by Tukey Cramer method.

Results and Discussion:

 Data showed that fiber source had no effect on nutrient digestibility. Ostrich rectum is longer than its small intestine (the rectum occupies 57% of the digestive tract and small intestine occupies 29% of the digestive tract) and a good place to ferment the plant fibers. Fiber digestive bacteria such as fibrobacter succinogenes and ruminococcus flavafaciens in ostrich's ceca and other fermenter bacteria in the ostrich's rectum enable it to have the proper ability to utilize fiber sources. Since the beginning of the experiment was from the age of one month, ostrich chicks had sufficient ability to use different fiber sources. The difference in the rate of digestive contents through the consumption of soluble or insoluble fiber sources had no significant effect on digestibility of nutrients. Soluble and insoluble fibers digestibility and ash digestibility increased with ageing (p < 0.0001). As birds age increase the bacterial activity increase in the rectum and ceca. There was no significant difference in AME in treatments that had more soluble fiber compared with the control group, but AME and AMEn increased significantly with increasing insoluble fiber compared to treatments that had more soluble fiber (p < 0.0001). Which is probably related to the effect of insoluble fiber in the small intestine. Insoluble fiber diets improve the efficiency of nutrients utilization due to increasing the villi height to crypt depth ratio, therefore increased AME and AMEn. The differences in AME and AMEn with consumption of insoluble fiber source in comparison with other treatments are related to the greater effect of different fiber sources on the small intestine. Insoluble fiber decreases the viscosity of digestive contents and increases the effect of digestive enzymes secreted from intestinal cells (such as alpha amylase) and improve the digestion of starch and other nutrients and increase the energy obtaining from the diet by the ostriches. AMEn significantly increased with aging that may due to the increase of the activity of older birds, increase the energy required for maintenance and activity and hence more consumption of energy by the bird. The microbial population of the cecum and colon of the ostrich (from 3 weeks onwards) is similar to the rumen, which has the ability to ferment the fiber and produce volatile fatty acids, which these volatile fatty acids provide part of the metabolizable energy.

Conclusion :

According to the results of this study, a suitable range for soluble and insoluble fibers in ostriches diets from one to two months old were suggested to be 7.5 to 11.5 percent and 16 to 20 percent, at the age of 2 to 4 months 7.6 to 11.6 percent and 20 to 24 percent and at the age of 4 to 6 months 8.25 to 12.25 percent and 25.5 to 29.5 percent, respectively.

In order to investigate the effect of isolated enterococcus facuim from intestine of Coracias Garrulus (EF) and lactofeed with two methods of spraying and drinking on performance, carcass characteristics, blood parameters, immune response, ceca microflora and jejunal morphology of BobWhite quail were done. A total of 420 chicks were arranged into 35 experimental pen with 7 treatments in a completely randomized design. The treatments were the control, the spraying, the drinking and spraying+drinking of enterococcus facuim, and the spraying, the drinking and the spraying+drinking of Lactofeed groups. A solution of 1011 CFU was used on days 1, 10 and 24 of age for spraying and drinking. Adding the same spraying and drinking EF or lactofeed reduced FCR (2.71 vs. 2.51) and increased body weight (395.67 vs. 307.88) in quail (P<0.05). The lowest abdominal fat percentage (0.725 vs. 23.14%) and highest weight of bursa of fabricus (0.78 vs. 0.62) in the quail = was belonged to the combination of spraying and drinking EF group. Lactofeed or EF reduced the concentration of cholesterol (249 vs. 342 mg/dl), LDL (211 vs. 148 mg/dl), triglyceride (173 vs. 268 mg/dl) and aspartate aminotransferase enzyme activity (256 vs. 192 U/L), but HDL concentration enhanced (96.16 vs. 67.44 mg/dl). In both methods of spraying and drinking, the EF improved immune responses to SRBC as compared to the control (9.33 vs 6.66) (P<0.05). Both of Lactofeed and EF improved the lactobacilli population of the ceca and morphology of jejunum. Therefore, the addition of enterococcus facuim isolates (EF) and lactofeed with the method of combination spraying and drinking may improve the performance, ceca flora, jejunum morphology, immune response and decreases the abdominal fat, blood lipids.

When aflatoxin contaminated food is given to lactating animals, the metabolite of aflatoxin, called M, is secreted in milk. Since pasteurization, sterilization, and milk processing have little effect on the survival and reduction of AFM1 toxicity, this poison ultimately transports to various dairy products and endangers consumer health. Along with the negative effects of mycotoxins on health and livestock products, these compounds can to be effective in digestion, metabolism and ruminal microbial populations. In ruminants (especially lactating cows) fed with AFB1 contaminated feeds, health problems such as liver cancer, reduce immunity, reproductive disorders, malformation, decreased feed intake and milk production have also been reported. An increase in liver enzymes can be attributed to the signs of an abnormal body. In addition, previous studies aluminosilicate has been show to tightly bind aflatoxins in vitro. This significantly reduce mortality and morbidity in animals, decrease molecular biomarkers of aflatoxin exposure in humans and animals.

Two experiments were conducted to investigate the effect of aflatoxin B1 and aluminosilicate toxin adsorbents on the parameters of gas production contains gas production potential (b) and gas production rate (c), in vitro fermentation parameters includes pH, ammonia nitrogen concentration, volatile fatty acids and ruminal digestion. In the first experiment, the effects of different levels of AFB1, including 0, 300, 600 and 900 ng/ml, were investigated on the parameters of gas production, fermentation and digestion using batch culture method. In the second experiment the effectiveness of three aluminosilicate adsorbents on the AFB1 detoxification was investigated. MegaBond and MycoBond as native adsorbents and MilBond as a commercial adsorbent were used in 6% of DM. The gas produced was recorded at 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, 24, 48, 72 and 96 h of the incubation. The data obtained were fitted to the non-linear equation to calculate parameters of gas production. Also, at the end of 24 h incubation, four bottles were transferred to refrigerator to stop fermentation. Then, pH, ammonia nitrogen concentration and volatile fatty acid (VFA) of batch culture medium was measured, as well as the dry matter digestibility.

Results of first experiment indicated that with increasing the AFB1 from 0.0 to 900 ng/ml, the gas production rate (c) decreased from 0.134 to 0.092 ml/h and the gas production potential (b) decreased from 160.7 to 131.3, but there was no significant difference between the treatments 0 and 300 ng/ml AFB1. In addition, the gas production lag phase increased significantly with increasing level of AFB1 (P<0.05). Addition of AFB1 to the batch culture did not affect its pH, but the dry matter digestibility significantly decreased (P<0.05) with increasing AFB1. Ammonia nitrogen concentration decreased significantly (P<0.05) with AFB1 addition, so that the lowest concentration of ammonia nitrogen was observed at 600 and 900 ng/ml AFB1 (15.2 and 15.3 mg/dL, respectively). In this experiment the total VFA concentration decreased significantly with AFB1 (P<0.05), but the molar ratio of acetate, propionate, butyrate, valerate and isovalerate was not affected (P>0.05). In the second addition of different aluminosilicate adsorbents significantly reduced the rate and potential of gas production. Likewise, dry matter digestibility and ammonia nitrogen concentration reduced significantly (P<0.05). Significant increase in pH of the culture medium by addition of aluminosilicate adsorbents can be attributed to the fact that aluminosilicate acts as a modifier of hydrogen ion in the environment due to the replacement of cations with hydrogen ion and prevents a significant decrease in rumen pH. Probably lowering the ammonia nitrogen concentration is due to the fact that the protozoan population is affected by aluminosilicate adsorbent and decreases; consequently, the population of the ruminal bacteria increases, which results in the removal of more ammonia nitrogen by microorganisms, and ultimately the concentration ammonia nitrogen decreases in the rumen.

The results of this study showed that AFB1 reduced gas production rate (c), the gas production potential (b), the concentration of ammonia and digestibility, but the pH is not affected in vitro. Also, none of the adsorbents was able to neutralize or reduce the negative effects of AFB1 on the parameters of gas production, fermentation and rumen digestion, which could be due to the absorption mechanism of aluminosilicate adsorbents for AFB1 absorption. The results of this study indicate that adsorbents cannot reduce the negative effects of AFB1 on digestion and rumen fermentation, therefore only proposed strategy is to prevent the contamination animal feed with mycotoxins.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of bentonite, kaolin and activated carbon on the absorption of Cu, Fe and Mn by in vitro and in vivo methods in Baluchi lambs. In vitro experiment, the binders effect on the minerals absorption was investigated in a completely randomized design with factor arrangement with standard solutions of Cu, Fe and Mn with concentrations of 7, 20 and 30 mg/l, respectively, four levels of binders (no binders, 10, 20 and 40 g/l) and three pHs 5.5, 6.4 and 7.5 and incubation for 60 min. In vivo experiment, bentonite, kaolin and activated carbon including 0, 10 and 20 g/kg DM were added to diet of 36 fattening lambs (6-7 months) for 90d in a completely randomized design. Feed intake, weight gain and blood and wool concentration of Cu, Fe and Mn were measured on 0, 45 and 90d. In vitro experiment, activated carbon had the highest and kaolin had the lowest mineral absorption by increasing binders levels and pH (P<0.05). In vivo experiment, the effect of treatments on feed intake, body weight, weight gain, feed conversion ratio and blood and wool concentration of Fe were not significant.The concentration of Cu and Mn in the blood and wool in lambs fed with binder were lower than control treatment (P<0.05). In general, the use of binders, especially activated carbon at low concentrations, causes less absorption of minerals. In vitro methods can be used to select binders instead of animal experiments.

Buffering and alkalizing supplements have been used in dairy cows in order to increase production and prevention of ruminal acidosis for many years. Magnesium carbonate is typically obtained from magnesite mines and magnesium oxide is produced by the calcification of magnesium carbonate (reduction, oxidation and burning or heating with extreme heat). Some minerals such as bentonite and zeolite have buffering properties and a special role in the buffering capacity of rumen cation exchange. Buffers raise acetate to propionate ratio and improve fiber digestion. The purpose of this experiment was to evaluate the buffering capacity (BC) and buffering value index (BVI) of some native buffer and alkalizer agents including sodium bentonite, magnesium carbonate, magnesium oxide and sodium bicarbonate and their effects on ruminal fermentation and digestion parameters in vitro.

The first experiment was performed with different types (11 samples) of buffer and alkalizer agents to determine the buffering Capacity (BC) and buffer Value Index (BVI). The experimental samples were including magnesium carbonate A (MgCA), magnesium carbonate B (MgCB), magnesium carbonate C (MgC C), magnesium carbonate D (MgC D), magnesium oxide A (MgOA), magnesium oxide B (MgOB), magnesium oxide C (MgOC), magnesium oxide D (MgOD), sodium bentonite A (SBeA), sodium bentonite B (SBeB) and sodium bicarbonate (SBi). The buffering capacity was defined as the resistance to change in pH from 7 to 5. In order to determine BC, individual samples were dried and ground to pass through 1-mm screen. Buffering capacity was determined by titrating the 30-ml solution under continuous stirring from its initial pH to 5 with 1 N HCl and by titrating a similar prepared solution of samples from its initial pH to 7 with 1 N NaOH. In the second experiment in vitro batch culture technique used. The basal diet contains 80 percent of the concentrate and 20 percent of the forage. half-gram (DM) of base ration with magnesium carbonate (MgC), magnesium oxide (MgO), sodium bentonite (SBe) and sodium bicarbonate (SBi) (1 and 3% DM of ration) were added into the culture vials, then incubated with 50 ml of buffered rumen fluid. Rumen fluid was collected from two ruminally fistulated cows. The gas production was estimated. In vitro dry matter disappearance (IVDMD), pH and ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N) was measured after 8 and 24 h incubation times.

The results showed that the highest pH, buffering capacity and buffering value index were in MgOA and the least of these parameters indicated at MgCD, respectively. Compared to the control lower values were obtained for total gas production (b) of MgO 3%, MgC 3%, MgO 1% and SBe 3% additives. In the present study, addition of MgC and SBi (3% DM diet) also caused a remarkably increase in total gas production. Although the exact mechanisms are not known for the general responses in gas production to supplementation of MgC and SBi, one of the mechanisms of   increasing total gas production is considered to be the higher ruminal microbial numbers caused by the SBi and MgC addition. It has been demonstrated that SBi addition increased the number of ruminal total bacteria, cellulolytic and amylolytic bacteria in buffalo. 3% MgO supplementation increased (P < 0.05) the final pH and it decreased (P < 0.05) the IVDMD compared with the control (after 24h incubation). Significant increase in pH by additive MgO and bentonite can be due to the exchange of cations with hydrogen ion as a modifier of hydrogen ion. Also, in this experiment use of SBe decreased digestibility of dry matter. Some researchers reported that 0.5% MgO (DM diet) does not change the digestibility of dry matter compared to sodium bicarbonate. On the other hand, results of this section of experiment was in agreement with results of gas production, MgC and MgO treatments which had the most and least amount of produced gas (respectively), these also affected digestibility of dry matter. Generally, buffers and alkalizing compounds have no effect on digestibility of dry matter, and probably this reduction in magnesium oxide treatment may indicated a change in the microbial population of ruminal fluid because of the effects of these treatments. In addition, Concentration of NH3-N did not differ (P = 0.2443) between the treatments. Some compounds, such as bentonites, are believed to be able to absorb and release proteins and other nitrogen substrates, so absorbing it when ammonia is high in the rumen, and when the ammonia concentration is reduced, a large amount of it released and thus increases the efficiency of ammonia and protein in the rumen.

In general, the results of this experiment show that magnesium oxide, while increasing the pH of the rumen fluid, also has negative effects on the parameters of gas production, fermentation and possibly microbial activity, and also reduces the in vitro digestibility of dry matter. However, magnesium carbonate and sodium bentonite as a true buffer and due to the preservation and stability of rumen fluid acidity can improve fermentation conditions without having a negative effect on digestibility, so using 1% magnesium carbonate and sodium bentonite as a true buffer is suggested in the livestock diet.
 

This study aimed to evaluate the buffering capacity of some buffer mixtures and the effect of their inclusion in the diet on in vitro ruminal fermentation parameters. For this purpose, five buffer mixtures were prepared as: 1) containing 15% sodium bicarbonate + 15% magnesium oxide + 35% magnesium carbonate + 35% sodium bentonite; 2) containing 35% sodium bicarbonate + 35% magnesium oxide + 15% magnesium carbonate + 15% sodium bentonite; 3) containing 20% sodium bicarbonate + 40% magnesium oxide + 20% magnesium carbonate + 20% sodium bentonite; 4) containing 40% sodium bicarbonate + 20% magnesium oxide + 20% magnesium carbonate + 20% sodium bentonite; and 5) containing 16% sodium carbonate + 35% magnesium oxide +22% magnesium carbonate + 5% sodium bentonite and 22% monobasic potassium phosphate. Buffering capacity and buffer value index were measured. Then the effect of buffer mixtures on gas production potential, pH, ammonia nitrogen concentration and in vitro dry matter disappearance (IVDMD) was investigated. Bufferingcapacity and buffer value index of buffer mixture 2 was higher than other buffer compounds (P<0.05). Buffer mixture 4 increased gas production (P<0.05). IVDMD was the same between the buffer mixtures and only buffer mixture 4 and 1 were different (P<0.05). The use of buffer mixture 2 increased the pH of the batch culture (P<0.05). Overall, the results of this experiment showed that the use of buffer mixture2 could have an effective role in preventing pH drop and consequently reducing acidosis.

Fungi can grow in feed that maintained under normal temperature and high moisture condition. At the same condition, the fungi can produce mycotoxins in the feed. In poultry production, mycotoxicosis caused by key mycotoxins such as: Aflatoxin B1, Ochratoxin, T2toxin, Zearalenone and deoxynivalenol (DON, vomitoxin). Mycotoxins especially aflatoxin had undesirable influence on feed intake, body weight, feed conversion ratio and carcass characteristics. The Aflatoxin infected feed cause injuries on poultry's carcass especially liver and heart. Various aspects of the aflatoxicosis in poultry husbandry including effects on bird’s performance, digestion, metabolism, and organ function, metabolism of the toxin, and remnant of toxic residues to poultry products have been the subjects of several comprehensive reviews. The aflatoxin has vast economic losses in poultry industry via increase the mortality and reduces the growth performance. In order to reducing aflatoxin side effects, some ways were proposed such as inactivation of toxin, toxin adsorbent. Bentonite is the main toxin adsorbent. Bentonite can decrease the aflatoxin absorption from gut. Therefore this study was done to evaluate the effects of different levels of physical modified Nanostructure bentonite (PNB) on growth performance, carcass components and blood indices in broilers challenged by aflatoxin B1 (AFB1).

One hundred and sixty day-old Ross 308 broiler chicks were bought from a great hatchery in South Khorasan, Iran. The birds were assigned to 20 experimental units with the same mean group body weight at initial experiment. The birds were reared for 35 days. The experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design with 5 treatments, 4 replicates and 8 birds in each. Experimental groups consisted of: negative control (C), positive control (basal diet with aflatoxin B1) (AF) and three level 0.25, 0.50 and 0.75 % of Physical modified Nanostructure bentonite added to basal diet with aflatoxin B1(positive control). The aflatoxin were added to starter and grower diets at 500 ppm and to finisher diets at 1000 ppm. At 21 and 35 days of age, one bird from each replicate was randomly selected and bled and blood parameters involved the concentration of cholesterol, triglyceride, LDL, HDL, total protein, and enzyme activity of alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, and lactate dehydrogenase were determined. One bird from each replicate of treatment were slaughtered and carcass components involved breast, thigh, abdominal fat, spleen, bursa of fabricius, and pancreas were weighed and the relative weight of organs were calculated. The data were analyzed by SAS software and general linear model (GLM) was used to analyze the data. The differences among means were determined by Tuckey's multiple range test.

The results showed that aflatoxin increased feed conversion ratio and reduced triglyceride as compared to control diet. The blood lipid was negatively influenced by infected aflatoxin diets in broilers. Supplementation of 0.25% Physical modified Nanostructure bentonite to the infected diet of broilers was significantly increased the feed intake, decreased the concentration of LDL (P<0.05). The lower relative weight of abdominal fat were observed in broilers fed diets contained aflatoxin and 0.25% Physical modified Nanostructure bentonite (PNB) (P<0.05). Birds fed infected diets and contained 0.75% PNB had higher triglyceride concentration compare to positive control. The ALT enzyme activity significantly increased in negative control treat compare to negative control and 0.50% PNB (P<0.05).In this research, the supplementation of Physical modified Nanostructure bentonite to broilers infected with aflatoxin reduced the undesirable effects of aflatoxin. As with previous research report that aflatoxin increased the feed conversion ratio and decreased the nutrient digestion and absorption. Inclusion of aflatoxin to broiler diets had undesirable effects on liver activity and liver injuries. The liver enzyme activities are indices to evaluate of liver function. The birds had higher liver enzyme activity, which may negatively affected by side effects of aflatoxin. The last literature were reported that the lower nutrient utilization might be a factor of the effects of the toxin on systemic metabolism rather than an effect on digestive functionality. Bentonite can adsorb the aflatoxin and reduce the side effects of them on broiler growth performance, digestive and liver function.

The result of this research showed that aflatoxin may decrease the performance parameters and addition of Physical modified Nanostructure bentonite reduced the negative effects of aflatoxin on performance and increased percentage of abdominal fat, therefore, the 0.5% Physical modified Nanostructure bentonite suggested to add in broiler diets contained aflatoxin.

Aflatoxins are natural fungal toxins that weaken the immune system and damage the liver. The effects of seeds and whole plant powder and extract of Milk thistle (MT) plant in reducing the negative effects of feeding aflatoxin (AF) on broiler chickens blood parameters and immune response were examined. 192 one-day old chicks (Ross 308) for 35 days in a completely randomized design with six treatments, four replicates and eight birds per repetition were used. The experimental treatments included: 1) control, 2) contaminated control (CC), 3) CC + 0.5 percent of MT seed powder, 4) CC + 1 percent MT plant powder, 5) CC + 600mg/kg MT plant extract, 6) CC + 1000mg/kg MT plant extract. The treatments had no significant effect on plasma concentrations CHOL, HDL, LDL, ALP, LDH, AST, ImG and ImM. Feeding contaminated diet increased alanine aminotransferase enzyme compared with healthy control (P≤0.05). The addition of 0.5 percent MT seed powder, 1 percent MT plant powder and 1000mg/kg MT plant extract to the contaminated diets decreased alanine aminotransferase enzyme compared to the contaminated control (P≤0.05). Inclusion of 1 percent MT plant powder to AF infected diet significantly increased the antibody titer compared with healthy control and contaminated control (P≤0.05). It was concluded that compared to other treatments, 1 percent MT plant powder was more effective in reducing the negative effects of feeding AF in broiler

This experiment was conducted to evaluate effects of different levels of Thyme or Ziziphora essence on performance,microbial population and immune response of broiler chickens. Four hundred and twenty day-old male chicks (Ross 308) were randomly distributed in seven dietary treatments of four replicates with 15 chicks/pen in a completely randomized design. Treatments were 50, 100 and 150 mg/kg diet of Thyme or Ziziphora essence and a non-essence diet as a control group. Based on the results, inclusion of 50 mg/kg of Ziziphora resulted in higher weight gain than control treatment at the end of experiment (P<0.05). On the other hand, feed intake was significantly increased with 50 mg/kg of Thyme and Ziziphora essence (P<0.05).At the end of experiment, no significant differences were shown between treatments in FCR.Thyme in 150 mg/kg and Ziziphora in 50 mg/kg indicated the highest EPI (P<0.05). Thyme at 100 and 150 mg/kg levels increased the proportion of lactobacilli and reduced intestinal colibacilles (P<0.05). Based on the results, different levels of Thyme compared to Ziziphora essence showed stronger effects on the humeral and cellular immune responses of broilers.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of Pillaring bentonite nanostructure on growth performance, carcass components and blood parameters of broilers challenged by aflatoxin (AF). A total of 128 day-old Ross 308 broiler chicks in a completely randomized design were randomly allotted to 4 treatments, 4 replicates and 8 birds in each. The birds were reared for 35 days. Experimental groups consisted of: negative control (C), positive control (basal diet with aflatoxin) (AF) and two level 0.25 and 0.75 % of Pillared bentonite added to basal diet with aflatoxin B1 (positive control). The Pillaring process increased the concentration FeO (1.99 to 8.42%) and decreased concentration Na2O (2.43 to 0.43 %) in Pillared bentonite as compared to sodium bentonite. The aflatoxin increased feed conversion ratio and enzyme activity ALP and ALT as compared to control diet. Supplementation of 0.25% Pillared bentonite to the infected diet of broilers increased the feed intake and body weight and decreased the concentration of ALT. Addition 0.75% Pillared bentonite increased the concentration of ALT and ALP as compare to positive control. Therefore, the supplementation of Pillared bentonite nanostructure to broiler diets infected with aflatoxin improved the performance and reduced the liver enzyme activity. The results of present research showed that Aflatoxin may had no effect on body weight and feed intake of broilers and the levels of 0.25 Pillared bentonite nanostructure has the best efficient on performance of broiler fed diets contained aflatoxin.

Aflatoxins are secondary metabolites due to the growth of molds in animal feed. Lactic acid bacteria are microorganisms that can absorb aflatoxins.
the effect of the yeast Lactobacillus rhamnosus (PTCC 1637) on Aflatoxin B1 detoxification and absorption of toxin in in vitro (the cow rumen) was investigated.
For this purpose, the bacteria used in various treatments (live-treated, autoclave, heat-treated, treated with acid 100ºC) was prepared and added to the rumen of cattle. Aflatoxin B1 in different doses (0, 5, 10, 20) ppb in the rumen were added and at times one and two hours were incubated at 37°C. The amount of toxin residues was measured by ELISA using Europroxima kits.
The results showed that microorganisms have been treated in an autoclave have the largest amount toxin removal (90.5 percent) (p As a solution to the livestock feed industry bacterial cell wall or its compounds can be helpful in reducing Aflatoxin B1 toxin.

Aflatoxins are a group of mycotoxins produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus and are an important factor in oxidative damage to the kidney and liver.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of turmeric extract and/or sodium bentonite against renal and hepatic damage induced by aflatoxin B1.
In this experiment that lasted for four weeks 64 male Wistar rats randomly assigned to eight groups containing: control, aflatoxin (AF), turmeric extract (TE), sodium bentonit (SB), TE, AF, AF, AF(TE). At the end of experiment blood samples were taken from heart and some biochemical analysis has been performed.
In the AF group, the levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), low density lipoprotein (LDL) and creatinine (P According to the present research, it seems that TE and SB alone decrease the harmful effects of Aflatoxin B1 and the combination of them has a potentiating effect.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of acidophilus bacterial isolates from intestine of Coracias Garrulus on performance and carcass characteristics parameters of Japanese quail. A total of 385 chicks were arranged into 35 experimental units with 7 treatments in a completely randomized design. The treatments were included control, spraying, drinking and sprying drinking of the acidophilus bacterial isolates, and spraying, drinking and sprying drinking of commercial probiotic. Two birds from each replicate were sacrificed and bleeding, then blood was gathered and plasma was extracted.The results were revealed that addition of acidophilus bacterial isolates and commercial probiotic did not affect feed intake at 47 d. The body weight was increased when birds received acidophilus bacterial isolates and commercial probiotic. The FCR were lower in birds received drinking probiotic and in spraying drinking acidophilus bacterial isolates treatments as compared to control. The carcass parameters did not affected by treatments. The results were revealed that addition of acidophilus bacterial isolates and commercial probiotic were decreased the serum cholesterol and LDL concentration of quail. The HDL and triglyceride were not affected by treatments. The protein concentration were increased in chicks received the acidophilus bacterial isolates and commercial probiotic. The antibody response against SRBC and IgM were increased in birds received acidophilus bacterial isolates or commercial probiotic. The jejuna histomorphmetry were showed that height of villi, crypt depth, and the ratios of height of villi to crypt depth were significantly changed.

The effects of seeds and whole plant powder and extract of Milk thistle (MT) plant in reducing the negative effects of feeding 500 ppb aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) on broiler chickens performance, carcass characteristics and some blood parameters were examined using 192 one-day old chick (Ross 308) in a completely randomized design with six treatments, four replicates and 8 birds per repetition. The experimental treatments included: 1) control, 2) contaminated control (CC), 3) CC 0.5 percent of MT seed powder, 4) CC 1 percent MT plant powder, 5) CC 600mg/kg MT plant extract, 6) CC 1000mg/kg MT plant extract. Results indicated that feeding contaminated diet reduced body weight gain and increased the feed conversion ratio and alanine aminotransferase enzyme compared with control in whole experimental period (P≤0.05). The inclusion of 1 percent MT plant powder to the contaminated diets improved weight gain and feed conversion ratio in 1-7, 7-21 days and whole experimental period (1-35 days) compared to the contaminated control (P≤0.05). The addition of 0.5 percent MT seed powder, 1 percent MT plant powder and 1000mg/kg MT plant extract to the contaminated diets decreased alanine aminotransferase enzyme (at 35d) compared to the contaminated control (P≤0.05). It was concluded that compared to other treatments, one percent MT plant powder was more effective in reducing the negative effects of feeding AFB1 in broiler chickens.

Yeasts are microorganisms that have the ability to absorb aflatoxins.
The effect of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae (PTCC 5177) on aflatoxin B1 detoxification and absorption of toxin in in vitro (the cow rumen) was investigated.
For this purpose, the yeast used in various treatments (live-treated, autoclave, heat-treated, treated with acid 100 °C) was prepared and added to the rumen of cattle. Aflatoxin B1 in different doses (0, 5, 10, 20) ppb in the rumen were added and were incubated at 37°C for one and two hours. The amount of toxin residues was measured by ELISA using Europroxima kits.
The results showed that microorganisms that have been treated in an autoclave have the highest amount of toxin removal (90.5%) (p As a strategy for the animal feed industry the use of glycomannan yeast cell wall can be useful for reducing aflatoxin B1.

Application of lateral intakes has been always considered by human for water supply. The lateral intake is a structure constructed to divert the water from Meandering Rivers for irrigation, storage and industrial purposes, etc. Given that rivers have curvatures in most of their path and also due to secondary flows, external shore of river bend is a good place for intake. An influent weir is constructed at the beginning of intake channel to control the inflow to lateral intake. In this study, to examine the influent weir discharge coefficient to the lateral intake at the river bend, some experiments were conducted in a laboratory rectangular channel with a 180-degree arc made of Plax glass in clear water conditions and without sediments. In these experiments, the effect of variables to the height of the weir at the upstream depth, catchment area at the bend and the Froude number on discharge coefficient of the flow at the inlet span of the intake was studied. The results show that if the bottom sediments inlet to the intake was not proposed, by increasing the Froude number and weir height ratio to the upstream depth, the intake discharge coefficient decreases. The maximum intake discharge coefficient was also observed at 70 and 100 degrees, and at least in 30 and 120 degrees.