محمد امین سمیع

Pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) is the most important horticultural crop cultivated extensively in central areas of Iran and an economically important nut that ranks the first among the agricultural export commodities in Iran. The annual exportation of this nut crop reaches to 100,000 tonnes that ranks the second after the oil in revenue income of the country. Kerman province is the most important pistachio producing province in Iran. The highest acreage of the pistachio producing lands in this province are allocated to Kaleghochi, Ahmadaghai, Ohadi and Akbari cultivars, respectively. Not to mention that these are the most commonly cultivated pistachio cultivars in Iran. The pistachio trees are attacked by many different insect pests. The pistachio green stink-bug, Brachynema signatum (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) is a key pest of pistachio in Iran. The adults and nymphs of this insect feed on the developing fruits of pistachio and cause significant damages in the form of pericarp lesions that result to the nut drop. The pistachio green stink-bug is also a vector of thepathogenic fungus, Nematospora coryli Peglion that causes the formation of corky appearance and somewhat bitter and distasteful smell of pistachio endocarp. In the pistachio producing areas of Iran, this pest is present in the pistachio orchards throughout the year and can produce four to five generations per year in Kerman province. Since the host plant can affect the growth, reproduction and survival of herbivorous insects, therefore evaluating the effects of host plant on the growth and reproductive characteristics of insect pest could be used in its integrated pest management programs. These effects could be evaluated by calculating the demographic parameters, especially the intrinsic rate of increase of the insect pest (rm) on preferred host plant, reminded that the demographic parameters are affected by the quality of host plant and are very useful indicators for evaluation the suitability of host plants to insect pests. This research was conducted to study a preferred natural diet (fresh kernels of pistachio) on developmental time, fecundity, survival rate, and life table parameters of pistachio green stink bug, Brachynema signatum (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae). This research was conducted to study a preferred natural diet (fresh kernels of pistachio) on developmental time, fecundity, survival rate, and life table parameters of pistachio green stink bug, Brachynema signatum (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae).

Insects reared on fresh kernels of pistachio head ram species in the growth chamber at 27 ± 1 ˚C, 65 ± 5% RH and a photoperiod 16: 8 h (L: D) and the parameters of age-stage, two sex life table of the insect were determined. The life table study was done with 100 identical eggs of the same age. After hatching, instar nymphs were fed with fresh kernels of pistachio head ram species every day. The data of Life table were analyzed according to the theory age-stage, two sex life table.

The total development time from egg to the death of adults was 83.85 days. The survival rate from newly nymph to adult stages was 34%. Females started to oviposition on day 36, reached its pick on day 44, and then gradually declined until reached zero on day 86 of the insect’s life span. The intrinsic rate of natural increase of population (rm) and the finite rate of population increase (λ) were 0.084 ± 0.0030 and 51.55±0.387 (female/ female/ day) respectively. Gross (GRR) and net reproduction rate (R0) were equal to 140.14 ± 15.17 and 78.78 ± 11.18 female eggs. Mean generation time (T) was 1.088±0.003 days.

The fertility life table can be constructed for analyzing and understanding the effect of external factors and host plants on the growth, survival, reproduction, and intrinsic rate of increase of insect populations. Host plant quality is an effective factor on the fecundity and population growth rate of herbivorous insects. Analysis of age-stage, two-sex life table and its parameters obtained in this study showed that stink bug had an appropriate development on natural diet. These results could help us to understand the B. signatum population dynamics under field conditions. The results could also help us make better management decisions in integrated pest management (IPM) programs for economically important crop, Pistachio.

Common pistachio psylla is one of the first-rate pests of pistachios and one of the native pests in pistachio farms in Iran and neighboring countries. The spread and outbreak of this pest requires a review of chemical control to reduce the consumption of pesticides, as well as the identification and use of environmentally friendly non-chemical methods. In this research, the effect of the natural biochar on activating the defense responses of pistachio trees and the feasibility of inducing resistance to control pistachio psylla was investigated by comparing the changes in the density of eggs and nymphs in different leaf levels during two generations. Changes in activity of catalase and peroxidase and non-enzymatic plant defense were investigated. The density of eggs and nymphs affected by the application of biochar decreased significantly from the seventh day onwards compared to the control and reached its lowest level on the twenty-eighth day. In connection with the change in the density of the nymphs, the eta value in the Wilks' Lambda test for the interaction effect of time and treatment was determined as 0.129. The amount of silicon accumulated in the leaves affected by biochar foliar application as an effective physical defense increased by 1.1 times after 48 hours and subsequently by 1.4 times after 14 days compared to the control treatment. Based on the obtained results, the use of biochar can create direct defense and induce resistance of pistachio trees to pistachio psylla by increasing the level of factors inhibiting nutrition and spawning.

Pistachios are one of the most important garden products of the country. The pistachio green stink-bug, Acrosternum millieri Mulsant & Rey (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) is one of the important and key pests of pistachio in Iran. The adults of the pest collected from the pistachio orchards of Rafsanjan in 2017 and reared on fresh kernels of pistachio head ram species in the growth chamber at 27 ± 1 ˚C, 65 ± 5% RH and a photoperiod 16: 8 h (L: D) and the parameters of age-stage, two sex life table of the insect were determined. The net reproduction rate (R0) was equal to 26.29±4.11 (offspring/individual), the gross reproduction rate (GRR) was equal to 54.28±5.91 (offspring/individual), intrinsic rate of natural increase of population (rm) was equal to 0.061±0.0031 (female/female/day), the mean generation time (T) and the finite rate of population increase (λ) were 53.44±0.50 (days) and 1.063±0.0033 (subject/substance/day), respectively. The obtained results have been discussed in terms of developing appropriate integrated pest management (IPM) programs against the pest by forecasting population growth rate.

Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius.) (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) is one of the most important pests of crops, greenhouses, and ornamental plants. In this study, the sub-lethal effect of Teucrium polium(Lamark)(Lamiales:Lamiaceae) on parameters of life table age- bisexual stage of B. tabaci (Gennadius.) was evaluated on the sensitive cultivar ( Ergon) and resistant cultivar (Cal-JN3) of Lycopersicon esculentum . 2-4 leaves seedlings of L. esculentum from sensitive and resistant cultivar were submerged in methanol extract of T. polium and water+ methanol (control) and were placed in cup cages. 30 imago insects of the same age were released in the cup cage and after 24 hours the imago insects were omitted and the eggs whose age was less than 24 hours were kept. The sexuality of the imago insects exiting these eggs exposed to the contaminated plant was determined and the rate of spawning of the female insect was daily recorded to the last day of its life. The experiment was investigated in a glass greenhouse and 27+ 2  temperature and relative moisture of 50 ± 5 and in lighting conditions of 16 hours of light and 8 hours of darkness. The results showed that there is a significant difference in the one percent level. The intrinsic value of population increase, reproduction gross rate, and reproduction net rate on the sensitive cultivar (Ergon) and resistant cultivar (cal-JN3) of the L. esculentum treated with T. polium L. was acquired 0.069, 31/43 and 11.03 and 0.061, 18.51 and 6.66 respectively.  Generally, in this study conjugate application of resistant plant cultivar and extract caused more loss and considerable reduction of the intrinsic rate of population increase comparing other treatments which subsequently lower the population of B. tabaci. So, the combined application of using resistant cultivar and the herbal extract is considerable in the population control of this pest.

In a natural ecosystem, there is a close relationship between natural enemies and environmental factors. Use of Geographic Information System (GIS) in analysis of spatial patterns of pest populations has increased during recent years. The purpose of this study was using Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) to determine the relationship in predatory ladybird, Exochomus nigripennis (Erichson) for biological control of the sucking pests. In order to determine the suitable areas for activity of E. nigripennis, the variables of temperature, humidity, rainfall, elevation and nutrition were selected as the most important criteria. The basis of AHP is the pair comparison of options and the possibility of examining different scenarios. ArcMap 10.1 and ArcCatalog 10.1 softwares were used to form spatial data and related analytics. The results indicated that nearly 4.34% of the province's regions, including some parts of Taft, Abarkuh and Mehriz were very good for activity and nearly 17.07% of the province's areas, such as the major part of Ardakan, Bahabad and Meybod were determined as very unsuitable for activity. Furthermore, comparison of the studied factors showed temperature with the final weight of 0.0529 is the most important factor influencing the activity of E. nigripennis and nutrition, humidity, elevation and rainfall are important in the next categories, respectively.

The sweet potato whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), is an economically important pest of a variety of agricultural crops worldwide. The control of sweet potato whitefly largely relies on the use of synthetic insecticides. However, the efficiency of chemical control is questionable with respect to the activity of adults and immatures on the abaxial surfaces of leaves. In addition, under the strong selection pressure of the chemical control, whitefly populations have become resistant to most registered insecticides. Therefore, the search for more environmentally friendly options for whitefly control is necessary. Botanical extracts are broad-spectrum materials, used in pest control and they compared to synthetic ones may be safer for the environment, are, generally, less expensive and are often decomposed to nontoxic products. They are potentially suitable for use in integrated pest management. Recently, in addition to the botanical insecticides, vermicomposting has been also proposed as a safe control method for insect pests. Vermicompost is an organic soil amendment, produced by earthworm digestion of organic waste. Studies show that plants grown in soil amended with vermicompost grow faster, are more productive and are less susceptible to a number of arthropod pests. In this research studied the mortality effect of ethanol extracts of the seeds and leave of Ricinus communis L. (Euphorbiaceae), Sophora alopecuriodes L. (Fabaceae), Aloe vera (L.) (Liliaceae) on adults of B. tabaci that reared on a tomato that planting in vermicompost from two different sources (pistachio waste and cattle manure). This result was compared with the insecticide abamectin.

The experiments were carried out in a completely randomized design and in a growth chamber at 25±2 ºC, photoperiod of 16: 8 (L: D) and with the 55±5 % relative humidity. Seed from the tomato cultivar ‘CH-Falat’ were sown into the pots (5×10 cm), containing different growth media. The three growth mixtures tested were: (i) 100% BAGA (sterile plant growth media); (ii) 70% BAGA with 30% pistachio waste vermicompost; (iii) 70% BAGA with 30% cattle manure vermicompost. After the bushes reached the 2- 4 leaf stage the bioassay tests were done by using the leaf-dip method. After drying of leaves, 20 adults of B. tabaci (24h) were released into each pot. The mixture of ethanol and distilled water (1:10) was as a control. After 72 h, mortality was recorded. To determine the effects of the sub-lethal dose (LC25) on the developmental durations of B. tabaci, the tomato pots that were prepared as above mentioned, dipped into LC25 concentration of each extract and abamectin, for 5s. After the drying of leaves, 15 pairs of B. tabaci adults were released in the pots and the cage was covered on the pot immediately. B. tabaci were removed from the plants after 72 hours and only the eggs less than 24 hours old were kept for the recording of the different stages of B. tabaci.

Based on the results, the kind of growth media was effective in the influence of extracts and abamectin, and the least LC50 of each insecticide was recorded in growth media that was added by pistachio waste vermicompost. Among the extracts, Aloe vera and leave of R. communis extracts showed the best and lowest effect against the B. tabaci with LC 50 value of 0.855 g/l and 22.841 g/l respectively (in pistachio waste vermicompost media). Subletal (LC25) effects of treatments on biological parameters of B. tabaci were significant compared to the control plant (p<0.05). Based on the results, the most mortality (%) in egg (22.84%), nymphal (42.11%) and pupal (11.94%) periods of B. tabaci was recorded for abamectin, Aloe vera and S. alopecuriodes extracts respectively. The interaction between vermicompost and extract was significant, and the longest of the nymphal period (19.83±0.67 days) was recorded on whiteflies that were treated by R. communis and reared on tomato plants grown in pistachio waste vermicompost. The shortest of this period (11.14±0.34 days) was recorded on control plant that grown in BAGA. Taken together, the longest development time was recorded on whiteflies that treated by S. alopecuriodes and reared on tomato plants grown in pistachio waste vermicompost and the shortest of this period was on insects treated by Aloe vera extract and pistachio waste vermicompost media. Plants fertilized with pistachio waste vermicompost had significantly higher phenolic content (10 mg/mL) than control (BAGA) (6.08 mg/mL), while those in cattle manure vermicompost group exhibited intermediary value (7.28 mg/mL).

These results indicated that the concomitant use of extract and vermicompost was more effective for controlling of B. tabaci. The most mortality caused by Aloe vera extract and amending of pistachio waste vermicompost into growth media increased its effectiveness. So, these extract and vermicompost can play an important role in the managing of B. tabaci in greenhouse crops.

Cotton whitefly, Bemisia tabaci Gennadius (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) is one of the most critical pests of numerous agricultural crops including tomato especially under protected cultivation. The whitefly because of ingestion of phloem sap, secretion of massive honey dew that reduces both the quality of the tomato and the available leaf area for photosynthetic activities, and transmission of plant viruses is considered as destructive agent. Development of alternative methods for chemical compounds seems essential in pest management due to human health and environmental safety. Since plants are rich sources of active chemicals they may be a substitute for pesticides. Recent studies have shown that chemicals with insecticidal properties derived from plants are active against target specific species and are converted to non-toxic materials in environment. In the present study the effect of Calotropis procera (Willd.) R. Br. (Asclepiadaceae) extraction on demographic parameters of B. tabaci was evaluated. For this purpose four different extracts were prepared, using four different solvents (methanol, ethanol, acetone and hexan).The swallow wort plant, C. procera (Asclepiadaceae), is a shrub widely distributed in south of Iran (Haji Abad, Bandar Abbas, and Ourzoeiyh) and other parts of the tropics regions. The plant is erect, tall, large, branched and perennial with milky latex throughout. A large quantity of latex can be easily collected from its green parts. The essential oils and the extracts of this plant have insecticidal properties. Tomato seeds, Var. CH were planted directly in plastic pots filled with sterile plant growth media4 (BAGA; Dashte Sabz Atie Co. Iran). Cotton whitefly adults were collected from the Rafsanjan field and transferred onto 2-4 tomato leaves in a greenhouse. Adults of the same age were collected from red-eye pupae and moved to separate plant cages. These adults were used in all the experiments. The toxicity of C. procera for adults of cotton whitefly were assayed by the leaf-dip method. For bioassay, we applied five different concentrations in three replicates. Two clear plastic glasses (10 cm diameter, 15 cm height) were put together as a plant cage. The upper one was covered with a fine mesh and the lower one filled with distilled water. Two tomato leaves were dipped in the dilutions for 5s and put in each cage. After drying the treated leaflets, fifteen same age adults were released into the upper part of cage. Mortality was evaluated after 24 h and all of the experiments were carried out at 27±2 ºC, photoperiod of 16: 8 (L: D) and with the 50±5 % relative humidity. In this research, the effect of C. procera extraction with different solvents; acetone, ethanol, hexan, and methanol was studied on demographic parameters of B. tabaci on tomato. Data analyzed by Age-stage, two-sex life table analysis-MSChart software. The experiments were carried out in a completely randomized design (CRD) with at least four replications in controlled conditions. The collected data were analyzed by SPSS16 software and the means compared using Duncan’s test. The LC25 was estimated by probit analysis 2011 software. Graphs were drawn using SigmaPlot 11.0. Different biological parameters including pupa duration (F6,37= 4.49, P< 0.01) and female (F4,674= 23.649, P< 0.000) and male adult longevity (F4,575= 19.21, P< 0.000), sex ratio (male) (F4,10= 148.33, P< 0.000), sex ratio (female) (F4,10= 33.884, P< 0.000), oviposition period (F4,10= 13943.40, P< 0.000) and total fecundity/ female (F4,674= 31.450, P< 0.000),showed significant difference among extractions derived from various solvents of C. procera. The results showed that there are significant differences among treatments on net reproductive rate (R0 or NRR), intrinsic rates of increase (rm), finite rate of increase (λ), gross reproductive rate (GRR) and mean generation times (T) at the 5% probability level. The intrinsic rate of increase of the whitefly, in treatments control, and C. procera extraction by acetone, ethanol, hexan, and methanol solvents were 0.081, 0.030, 0.045, 0.054 and 0.043 respectively. All of the treatments compared with control reduced the oviposition period and the total number of eggs that laid each female. These two parameters were the least on acetone extraction of C. procera (0.59 and 3.093) and the highest on control (2.45 and 15.131) respectively. The results clearly indicate that the acetone and methanol extract of C. procera possesses many useful properties to control insect pests.

The efficiency of plant extracts of Rubia tinctorum L. (Rubiaceae) and Ferula gummosa Boiss(Apiaceae) and release of the mirid bug Nesidiocoris tenuis Reuter (Miridae) were compared with Espirotermat to control sweet potato whitefly, Bemisia tabaci Genn. (Hem: Aleyrodidae) in semi-field conditions. LC50 of plant extracts and pesticide for sweet potato whitefly was calculated. In the main experiment, plant extracts and pesticides were sprayed on tomato plants in cages covered with mesh fabric. LC50 values of pesticides and plant extracts were sprayed on plants. Nymph of mirids was hanged to plant tomatoes. Subsequent days after treatment, number of sweet potato whitefly was counted. The experiments were carried out at 25 ±5 °C, 50±5 RH and photoperiod of 16:8 h (L:D). LC50 of R. tinctorum and F. gummosa extracts as well as Espirotermat was 22.359, 45.641 and 0.404 mg/ml, respectively. Post density decreased R. tinctorum and F. gummosa extracts, Spirotermat and the mird bug 86.54, 83.73, 89.16 and 87.67 percent pf egg stage, 80.20, 76.28, 82.56 and 79.38 percent of nymphal stage, 80.66, 75.26, 85.89 and 81.86 percent of total immature stages as well as 81.89, 79.49, 84.85 and 81.98 of total nymphal stages. Findings from experiments could be promising for further studies on plant extract of Rubia tinctorum and the mirid bug as on alternative to chemical pesticides in natural conditions.

The ladybird, Oenopia conglobata contaminata is one of the important predators of some aphids in Iranian orchards. Pomegranate green aphid, Aphis punicae Passerini (Hem.: Aphididae) is the most common pests of pomegranate trees, existing in all pomegranate orchards in Iran. In order to determin the suitable areas for release of O. conglobata, the factors of temperature, humidity, rainfall, height, and prey frequency were selected as the most important criteria. Analysis of the data was carried out based on the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and the spatial geostatistical database of GIS. The results indicated that, nearly 32% of the province's regions, including some parts of Taft, Abarkuh and Mehriz, were perfectly suitable for release. The possible reasons are the position of the orchatds between the highlands and the plains, causing intensify in pressure difference and createing air currents from the mountain to the plains and vice versa. Furthermore, nearly 59% of the province's areas, such as the major part of Ardakan, Bahabad and Bafgh, were determined as completely unsuitable for release. The reasons might be the high average temperature and the lack of adequate prey.

The sweet potato whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Genn.) (Biotype A) (Hem: Aleyrodidae) is a major pest of field crops, vegetables and ornamental plants. In this research, the effect of several extraction methods (percolation, maceration, sonication, water bath and soxhlet) on mortality effect offine leaved fumitory, Fumaria parviflora on adults of Bemisia tabaci with leaf dip test were studied. Methanol 3% were used as negative control treatment respectively and tomato as host plant. The calculated LC50 value for above extraction methods were 54.78, 85.04, 85.18, 139.33 and 344.69 g/l respectively and dosage-response gradient was estimated 1.34 ±0.30, 1.08±0.28, 1.0 ± 0.26, 1.39±0.43 and 0.92±0.20 respectively. The results showed that percolation plant extract of F. parviflora had the highest mortality on adult of B. tabaci. It seems that the percolationmethod is the best method to extract chemical compounds to be used against the cotton whitefly. Using this extactct may be a useful strategy against the pest in Integrated Pest Management.

Nesidiocoris tenuis Reuter (Hemiptera: Miridae) is a zoophytophagous mirid known as a potential biological control agent of whiteflies and Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). This predator is widely used in integrated pest management programs in greenhouses. In this study, side effects of four pesticides including pymetrozin, abamectin chlorantraniliprole, mancozeb and iprodion carbendazim on survival and number of offspring N. tenuis were evaluated. Adults of predators exposed to the pesticides through residual and oral routes simultaneously. None of the pesticides except abamectin chlorantraniliprole cause significant mortality on predator but all of them were affected the number of offspring. The highest reduction in fertility was related to abamectin chlorantraniliprole (92.5%). Iprodion carbendazim (43.22%), pymetrozin (37.44%) and mancozeb (17.14%) were next in rank, respectively. Toxicity of pesticides was calculated based on the reduction coefficient, Ex. According to IOBC classification abamectin chlorantraniliprole was moderately harmful, pymetrozin and iprodion carbendazim were slightly harmful and mancozeb was harmless.

Ladybird, Menochilus sexmaculatus (Col .: Coccinelidae) is an important predator of pests in Iran’s gardens. Based on the expert’s comments, many studies and information resources, the factors such as temperature, humidity, rainfall, altitude and nutrition are considered as the most important criteria determining the zone which are suitable for six spot ladybird’s release. According to the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and 10.1ArcCatalog ArcMap10.1 software, the Arc GIS sub software was used for establishment of a spatial database and analysis related to the areas which are appropriate for the release of predator M. sexmaculatus. Moreover, the extensions of ET Geo Wizards, Hawth’s Analysis Tools, and Xtools2 were applied for accurate data and information entrance. The results of this study show that approximately 35 percent of Yazd province considering to the potentials of temperature, humidity, rainfall, altitude and nutrition requirements are quite suitable for the release of six spot ladybirds. A likely explanation is that these areas are situated between mountains and plains where cause to intensify pressure difference and create air stream from the mountain to the plains and vice versa. . Also, about 60 percent of the areas were completely unsuitable for release of predator. A likely reason for this might be attributed to very high temperatures and lack of adequate prey for nutrition.

Aphids are tiny soft-body insect pests which damage the host plant directly through sap feeding and indirectly by transmission of plant viruses. Pomegranate green aphid, Aphis punicae is a common pest of pomegranate gardens in Iran. In some years, the aphid dramatically damages under the suitable conditions in that they can grow and reproduce. Lady beetles are small, brightly colored insects and belong to family Coccinellidae. These predators obtain necessary resources for their survival and reproduction from a variety of habitats. Menochilussexmaculatus (Col.: Coccinellidae) is one of the major predators of pests reported in the gardens of Iran. The zigzag beetle is a general entomophagouscoccinellid that feeds upon soft body insects such as aphids. The adults of M sexmaculatus are bright yellow in color with black vertical zigzag lines. The adults and larva prey upon all stages of aphids. The study of the predation efficiency of M. sexmaculatus would increase its chances to be used as a biological control agent M. sexmaculatus is an efficient predator of many aphid species, e.g. the mustard aphid, LipaphiserysimiKalt. The zigzag, beetle widely distributed and feed on aphid species in India, Pakistan, Borneo, Jawa Indonesia, and the UK. The Philippines, Islands of Bali, France, Sumatra and South Africa. In this paper, we evaluated the effect of temperature on some biological parameters of M. sexmaculatus by feeding on pomegranate green aphid, A.punicae. Menochilussexmaculatus is an effective predator to be used as a bio-control agent but the major challenge is its mass rearing and augmentation
The colony of M. sexmaculatus was established from about 100 adult beetles collected from a pomegranate orchard (GPS coordinates 30°23'42.31'' N and 55°56’51.11’ E) at Vali-e-Asr University of Rafsanjan, Rafsanjan, Iran, in October 2013.. Adults were held In a ventilated plastic box (25.0 x 20.0 x 10.0cm) and fed by pomegranate green aphids in a climate-controlled growth chamber set to 25 ± 2 °C, 65 ± 5% RH and 16L: 8D photoperiod. The functional response of different stages of M.sexmaculatus to different densities of 3rd and 4th nymphal stages of pomegranate green aphid were studied at temperatures of 20, 22.5, 25, 27.5 and 30 (±1)°C, for adult females (10-days old) in temperatures of 25 and 27.5(±1)°C for 3rd and 4th larval stages, at 65 ± 5 RH and 16:8 L: D photoperiod. The densities of 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 100, and 128 3rd and 4th nymphal stages of aphid for 3rd and 4th larval stages and densities 8, 16, 32, 64, 100 and 128 for female and male adults. Females of lady beetle were used and the average feeding at any density was recorded after 24h. Type of functional response was determined using logistic regression and the searching efficiency (a) and handling time (Th), were estimated by nonlinear regression. All the data in the Excel 2007 program was set. Curves and graphs were plotted using Excel 2007 software.
Type of the functional response of the all predator stages across all temperatures was type II. The results showed that the temperature is effective on functional response of predator, and searching efficiency of predator increased at temperatures of 22.5°C to 27.5°C. The maximum and minimum value of the searching efficiency were0.14 h-1 at 27.5°C and 0.0582 h-1 at 22.5°C and of handling time were 0.26 h at 20°C and 0.0182h at 22.5°C for adult females respectively.
Conclusion In general, the lady beetle at temperature of 27.5°C and in stages of 4th larval and adult would have the highest predatory efficiency. Application of this predator was interested in biological control programs of pomegranate green aphid. The data indicated that the M. sexmaculatus may be a useful candidate for the biological control of A. punacaein pomegranate gardens.

The life table and predation rate of Menochilus sexmaculatus (Fabricius) (Col.: Coccinellidae) was performed under laboratory conditions with 25±2°C and 27.5±2°C, respectively and 65±5 RH and 16:8 L:D. To study the life table, 60 larvae less than 24 hours were chosen and feeding on third and fourth instars of pomegranate green aphid Aphis punicae. Daily fertility, immature developmental time and mortality were analyzed through Age-stage, two-sex life table analysis-MSChart software. The mean and standard error of parameters of population growth were analyzed according to the bootstrap method. According to the results, the intrinsic rate of increase (rm), finite rate of increase, λ mean generation time (T0), Gross and net reproductive rate (R0) were 0.21±0.0085 d-1, 1.23±0.0104 d-1, 24.57±0.468 d, 236.366±33.57 and 178.148±27.83 eggs/individual, respectively. The amount of consumed aphids by fourth larval instars of ladybird were 188.08 for males and 179.09 for females. Average predation rate (C0) at pre-mature stage was 358.9 aphids and showed that predation has a high potential in natural population control of aphids.

The functional response and predation rate of Hippodamia variegata (Goeze)(Col.: Coccinellidae) were studied under laboratory conditions at 25 and 27.5oC, 65 ± 5 RH and a photoperiod of 16:8 (L:D). In order to study the predation rate, newly first instar larvae were chosen and each age stage were fed by three and four instars of pomegranate green aphid, Aphis punicae (Hem.: Aphididae). According to the results, predation rate at 25 and 27.5°C were 11.4 and 10.3% for larval stage, and 86.8 and 89.7 % for female adult stage, respectively. The consumption value in females compared to males is 1.5 times. The net predation rate (C0) at 25 and 27.5 °C were 1725.14 and 1870 three and four instars of pomegranate green aphid respectively. The result showed that all age stages of the predator at 25 and 27.5 oC exhibited type II functional response. Thus, based on the searching efficiency at 25°C, 3th and 4th larval instars and at 27.5°C 4nd larval instar and adults of H. variegate are the most effective as predators on A. punicae. So in both temperatures, fourth instar larvae showed a better searching efficiency. The results indicated that the H. variegata may be a useful candidate for the biological control of A. punacae in pomegranate gardens.

Aphids are very successful insects of the superfamily Aphidoidea with the highest number of species are found in temperate regions. One of the most important aphid, is Myzus persicae, known as the green peach aphid or the peach-potato aphid, is a small green aphid. It is the most significant aphid pest of peach trees, causing decreased growth, shriveling of the leaves and the death of various tissues. It is also hazardous because it acts as a vector for the transport of plant viruses, such as potato virus Y and potato leafroll virus to members of the nightshade/potato family Solanaceae, and various mosaic viruses to many other food crops. The green peach aphid is found worldwide, although it is less tolerant of colder climates and overwinters through its eggs, laid in trees of the genus Prunus. The aphid also benefits from the presence of greenhouses in these areas The common pistachio psylla, Agonoscena pistaciae Burckhardt and Lauterer (Hemiptera: Psylloidea), is now the most destructive insect pest of cultivated pistachio trees (Pistacia vera Linnaeus) in Iran This pest occurs throughout the pistachio plantation region of the country and causes severe reductions in pistachio yields. these pests are controlled almost exclusively by pesticides; however, environmental contamination and resistance by A. pistaciae and M.persica to insecticides has lead to considerable efforts to understand the potential of biocontrol agents for the common pistachio psylla and green peach aphid control. Coccinellids have been widely used in biological control for over a century and are considered to be important natural enemies of pest species, especially whitefly, aphids, mealy bugs, scales and mites. Lady beetles belong to the order beetles (Coleoptera) are the Coccinellidae family. To achieve a successful biological control program, it is necessary to characterize the growth, stage structure, fecundity, and predation rate of the pest’s predators. Life table studies are fundamental to population ecology. A life table gives the most comprehensive description of the survivorship, development, and reproduction of a population. The collection of life table data for related species at different trophic levels in a food chain is a basic and important task for conservation and pest management. Knowledge of the life table of both predator and prey is necessary for the mass rearing and practical application of a natural enemy to biological control systems. However, most of the traditional female age-specifc life tables ignore the male population and the stage differentiation. They cannot take into account the variable predation rate amon stages and the predation rate of the male. They cannot take into account the variable predation rate among stages and the predation rate of the male. To take the variable developmental rates among individuals and both sexes into consideration Chi and Liu developed an age-stage life table theory Because variation in developmental rate among individuals and between sexes in a natural population is a normal occurrence an age-stage structured model helps take the variation in the predation rate and the survival rate of individuals of the same age but different stage into consideration. The intrinsic rate of increase (rm) is a useful statistic for describing population growth rates. Estimates of rm have been used to assess the potential effectiveness of natural enemies. The predation activity of larvae and adult of Oenopia conglobata as a predator of aphids and psyllids of forest, fruit and crop plants has been reported from the most regions of Iran. Due to widespread of lady beetle, O. conglobata and its useful role in controlling of aphids, probably its conservation, rearing and its release can be useful in integrated pest management programs. This study provides information for understanding the primary potential of a native predator of the common pistachio psylla and green peach aphid. Obtaining knowledge about this species and other psyllid and aphids biocontrol agents will help extension officers to reduce chemical applications against the psyllid and aphid. This paper describes the relationship between the predatory ladybird, O. conglobata contaminate and common pistachio psylla and green peach aphid. In this article, we use the age-stage, two-sex life table theory to analyze the life history of O.conglobata with feeding on M.persica and A. pistaciae .The temperature threshold for development and thermal requirement for preimaginal development, food consumption and prey preference were determined under controlled conditions. Also, the reproductive responses and rm of this .ladybird on psyllid and aphid nymphs were quantified.
Adults of O. conglobata contaminata were collected from gardens of peaches and apricots around Isfahan in June 2011 and transferred to the laboratory of Biological Control Research Institute Isfahan, Iran. The initial population of aphids on plants of pepper from the Department of Plant Ecology Laboratory of Virology, University of Shiraz and transferred to Vali-e-Asr University of Rafsanjan. The experiment was performed under laboratory conditions (i25±1oC 55±5 RH and 16:8 L: D). A cohort with about 100 eggs

The common pistachio psylla, Agonoscena pistaciae Burckhardt and Lauterer (Hem.: Aphalaridae), is one of the most important pests of pistachio orchards in Iran. In this study, the effect of ethanol extracts of Thymusv ulgaris L., Rosmarinus officinalis Save., Ricinus communis L. and Sophopra alopecuriodes L. were studied on the mortality of this pest in vitro. The bioassay experiments were done within 8-cm-diameter Petri dishes, containing pistachio leaf disks and fifth instar nymphs of common pistachio psylla. Different concentrations of extracts were sprayed on nymphs, by using the spray tower, and distilled water and ethanol were used as control. Nymphal mortality was calculated at 36 and 48h post-treatment. The experiment was conducted in a CRD design with three replications for each concentration of each treatment. According to the obtained results, the effect of different concentrations of all treatments was significant on the mortality of pest at 36 and 48h after treatment. The LC50 values for T. vulgaris, R. officinalis, R. communis and S. alopecuriodes (flowers) and S.alopecuriodes (leavs)at 36hafter treatmentwere calculated to be 386.642, 322.207, 314.338, 94.367 and 25.127 g/l, respectively. Based on the toxicity of extract used in this study at 24 and 48 hours after treatment, T. vulgaris and S. alopecuriodes extracts hadthe lowest and highest insecticidal effect on common pistachio psylla, respectively. The extract of S. alopecuriodes flowers and leaves was more effective and it could be used as an effective and environmentally friendly compound candidate in controlling this pest.

Cotton whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) is one of the most important pests of agronomic in greenhouse’s crops and ornamental plants. In this study, the effect of sublethal dose of Fumria parviflora (Lamark) (Papaverales: Fumariaceae) extract on the age-stage, two-sex life table parameters of B. tabaci was evaluated. While insect was reared on sensitive (Ergon) and resistant (Cal j n3) tomato cultivars. A total of 30 adult insects of the same age were released into glass cage and the adults were removed after 24 hours. All less than 24 hours old eggs remained and the fecundity were recorded daily until the end of the last day of life. Experiments were done in greenhouse under controlled condition; 27 ± 2°C , 50 ± 5 %rh and 16 h light/8 h dark. Results showed lower intrinsic rate of increase, gross reproductive rate and net reproductive rate of pest on resistant varieties Cal j n3 with amount of 0.062 d-1, 37.2 egg/individual and 10.1 egg/individual respectively, than insects reared on susceptible cultivar, Eregon which were treated with Fumaria extract with amount of 0.071 d-1, 39.85 egg/individual and 13.82 egg/individual respectively. The intrinsic rate of increase reduction in control treatment of Cal j n3 cultivar showed the effect of resistant cultivars on pest population dynamic. Although extract of fumaria application increased a crash of population on both cultivars, coeffect of resistancy and herbal pesticide application showed a better result. The highest intrinsic rate of increase was observed in control and ergon treatments with 0.1 d-1 and the lowest rate was recorded on F. parviflora Cal j n3 (0.06 d-1) ones. Therefore, usage of resistant varieties beside the herbal pesticides application showe deeply effect on this pest population density and is very important in its IPM strategy.

Rhopalosiphum padi L. (Hem.: Aphididae) is one of the most important pests damaging cereals specially wheat and lowering the quality and quantity of the production directly and indirectly each year. In this study, the toxicity effect of two extracts of Rubia tinctorum L. (Rubiaceae) and Lawsonia inermis L. (Lythraceae) is compared with two conventional insecticides, imidacloperid and pirimicarb. The study was conducted in petri dish of 8 centimeter diameter using a completely randomized design with five different concentrations for each set with four repetitions on 15 adult insects of R. padi L. (Hem.: Aphididae) 25±2 degree Celsius, relative humidity of 70±5 percent and in photoperiodic of 16 hours lightness and 8 hours darkness. All biometric studies were performed on similar and identical leaves of barley with the method of leaf immersion. The number of dead insects was counted after 24 hours. The results indicated that the insecticide imidaclorperide with fatal effects of 50%, 0.0318 and the methanol extract of henna L. inermis L. with fatal effects of 469.532 micro liter per milliliter were the most and least effective, respectively. Comparison of the results revealed that the extracts of the two plants, especially methanol extract of madder (R. tinctorum L.) with insecticide imidaclorperide and pirimicarb, have especial toxic potential to control the above said insect. Accordingly, as the extracts had less potential insecticidal potential, they should be used in conjunction with other methods.

Pomegranate fruit moth (PFM), Apomyelois ceratoniae Zeller is a major pest of pomegranate in Iran. In this study, the effect of four diets including pistachio, pomegranate, semi-artificial and artificial diets were studied on biological parameters of PFM in a growth chamber under controlled conditions at 30 ± 2 °C, 65 ± 5% RH and 16:8 (L: D) h. The results demonstrated that the longest incubation period, larval developmental time and preimaginal development time was observed on artificial diet and the shortest was on the pomegranate. The highest and lowest body length of fifth instar larvae were observed on pistachio and artificial diet, respectively. The heaviest weight of third day pupae was recorded for the larvae that were reared on pistachio (0.0275 ± 0.0004 g) while the lightest was on artificial diet (0.0216 ± 0.0004 g). In the next experiment, the effect of four diets was considered to assess the efficiency of pheromone traps in a twenty year old pomegranate orchard cultivated with Malasse Yazdi cultivars. The effect of food on catch of traps showed a significant difference. The virgin PFM that were fed with pomegranate attracted more males. Also the traps caught the males mostly from 11:00 pm until 4:00 am, with the peak time between 23:00 and midnight. No significant difference was seen between diet and time of catch, indicating that starting or ending time and the maximum time of catch was not affected by the diets.

Characteristics such as lower developmental time, higher fertility and a large body size of natural enemies as biological control agents are important for mass rearing. Hippodamia variegate (Goeze) (Col.: Coccinellidae) is one of the major predators of pests in the gardens of Iran. The effect of six constant temperatures, 17.5, 20, 22.5, 25, 27.5 and 30 (±1) ºC were investigated on the development of the predator by feeding on the pomegranate green aphid Aphis punicae (Hem.: Aphididae) in growth chamber with 65±5%RH and 16L: 8D h conditions. The results showed that there were significant differences among developmental times of the studied coccinellid in examined temperatures. The developmental time of H. variegata were 46.01± 1.541, 23.77 ± 0.311, 16.02 ± 0.16, 11.66 ± 0.12, 10.45 ± 0.20 and 13.35 ± 0.33 days on above mentioned temperatures, respectively. Developmental rate of predatory coccinellid increased linearly in relation to temperature to 27.5 ºC. The lowest mortality was observed at 20 and 27.5ºC among the above mentioned temperatures. Two mathematical models, including common and Ikemoto and Takai linear models, were used to describe temperature-dependent development of the H. variegata. Based on the statistical criteria, whereas the common linear model had shown an acceptable fit to data, Ikemoto and Takai linear model estimated thermal indices more precisely than common linear model. Estimated values for lower temperature threshold for incubation period, total larval period, pupal period and overall immature stages of the H. variegata were 11.15, 14.13, 15.52 and 13.99 °C, respectively, and the values of the thermal requirement for the mentioned above developmental stages were 44.69, 79.22, 23.62 and 157.34 degree-days, respectively, by using Ikemoto and Takai linear model. Moreover, mathematical models for description of temperature-dependent development of the coccinellid developmental stages were presented. The results show that optimum temperature was 25 to 27.5ºC for the rearing of the lady beetle.

The predatory bug Nesidiocoris tenuis Reuter is one of the important natural enemies of the greenhouse whitefly, Trialeurodes vaporariorum Westwood. In this research, age-stage two-sex life table and predation rate of this predator by feeding on 2nd instar nymphs of T. vaporariorum were studied at 25±2 oC, 65±10% RH and a photoperiod of 16:8 h (L:D) on eggplant, cucumber and tomato plants. The means and SEs were estimated using 100,000 Bootstrap replications. Pre-adult developmental time of the predator on eggplant, cucumber and tomato were 23.94±0.12, 22.94±0.27 and 22.43±0.21days; female longevity were 21.2±0.49, 25±0.24 and 24.2±0.78 days, male longevity were 26.16±1.91, 28.92±1.46 and 29.25±1.43 days, and fecundity of the predator were estimated to be 84.36±3.17, 114.44±2.32 and 122.73±4.92 eggs, respectively. The intrinsic rate of increase (r) and net reproduction rate (R0) of the predator were 0.102±0.0052, 0.111±0.0054 and 0.117±0.0046 (d-1), and 30.13±4.94, 40.87±6.6 and 52.6±7.53 (eggs), respectively. The highest net predation rate (C0) of the predator was obtained on tomato (1803.59±135.9 whitefly nymphs/ predator) which was significantly higher than those estimated on two other host plants (1337.17±114.27 on cucumber and 1163.27±105.81 on eggplant). Difference in transformation rate from prey population to predator offspring (Qp) were not significant between three host plants and were estimated to be 34.29±3.12, 32.72±3.97 and 38.61±4.41 for tomato, cucumber and eggplant, respectively. Overall, in the current study, compared with two other host plants, tomato was more appropriate plant for developing and predatory activity of this predator.

The cucumber moth, Diaphania indica (Saunders), is a tropical and sub-tropical pest on cucurbits and a key pest of greenhouse crops in Jiroft region of Iran. The effect of temperature on life table parameters of this pest was investigated in a growth chamber at four constant temperatures i.e. 20, 25, 30 and 35 ºC on Cucumis sativus L. The net reproductive rates (R0) were found to be 68.19, 120.977, 64.05 and 21.23, respectively. The intrinsic rates of increase (rm) were 0.0619, 0.1746, 0.1934 and 0.1491, and mean generation times (T) were 69.063, 27.45, 21.49 and 20.44, respectively. According to the results, for the intrinsic rate of increase (rm), finite rate of increase (λ) and intrinsic birth rate (b), the optimum temperature was 30 ºC and the least suitable temperature was 20 ºC.

The coccinellid Oenopia conglobata contaminata (Menteries) is one of the most important predators of orchard pests in Iran. The effect of eggs of Sitotroga cereallela Olivier (Lep.: Gelechiidae) and Ephestia kuehniella Zeller (Lep.: Pyralidae) on development and survival of this beetle was studied and compared under laboratory conditions (five constant temperatures i.e., 22.5 ± 1, 25 ± 1, 27.5 ± 1, 30 ± 1 and 32.5 ± 1 °C 55 ± 5% relative humidity (R. H.) and a 16:8 h light: dark photoperiod). Total developmental time at the above-mentioned temperatures were 28.83 ± 0.17, 24.52 ± 0.37, 21,39 ± 0.21 17.92 ± 0.16 and 18.22 ± 0.29 days on S. cereallelaand27 ± 0.38, 23.32 ± 0.14, 19.57 ± 0.28, 16.14 ± 0.17 and 16.33 ± 0.05 days on E. kuehniella. The lower developmental thresholds (T0) of egg, larva, pupa and egg to adult on E. kuehniella were estimated15.02, 8.6, 7.48 and 8.55 ºC and the thermal constant for these periods calculated as 38.16, 222.22, 71.9 and 370.37 DD. The lower developmental thresholds on S. cereallela were found to be 13.79, 5.6, 5.82 and 6.54 ºC andthermal constant for the mentioned periods were 41.15, 277.77, 91.7, 454.54 DD, respectively. Although significant differences between developmental times at different temperatures exist, no significant differences was observed between 30 and 32.5 °C for two prey species. The results suggest that E. kuehniella serves as a more effective host than S. cereallela for rearing of coccinellid O. conglobata.

Characteristics such as lower developmental time, higher fertility and a large body size of natural enemies as biological control agents are important for mass rearing. Menochilus sexmaculatus (Fabricius) (Col.: Coccinellidae) is one of the major predators of pests in the orchards of Iran. The effect of six constant temperatures of 17.5, 20, 22.5, 25, 27.5 and 30 ºC were investigated on the development of the predator by feeding on the Pomegranate green aphid Aphis punicae (Hem.: Aphididae) under laboratory conditions (65 ± 5 RH and 16L: 8D h). The developmental time of M. sexmaculatus were 26.83± 0.61, 19.35 ± 0.23, 16.02 ±0.16, 11.66 ± 0.12, 10.45 ± 0.20 and 13.35 ± 0.33 days on above mentioned temperatures, respectively. The results showed that developmental time decreased with increasing temperature to 27.5 ºC. The lowest mortality was observed at 22.5ºC among the above-mentioned temperatures. The results indicated that there were significant differences for developmental times in different temperatures. Survival rate decreased away from the desirable temperature, 27.5 ºC, in both higher and lower orders. Lower temperature thresholds for eggs, larvae, pupae and adults were 10.69, 12.22, 12.83, 11.55ºC and thermal constants for egg, total larval period, pupa and egg to adult were 32.25, 83.33, 33.33, 166.66 degree-days, respectively, by feeding green pomegranate aphid. The results showed that optimum temperature were 25 to 27.5ºC for the rearing of the lady beetle.