مسلم مظفری

Resistance literature is rooted in history. Wherever there is oppression, literature of resistance has sprouted in the form of one of the literary types. In Iran, this literature has always received attention, and, especially after the victory of the Islamic Revolution in 1357, and during the eight-year war with the neighboring country, it increased and was favored by Iranians.Although prison literature, as a type of the subset of resistance literature, ows part of its existence  to the prisons of the Pahlavi regime, its colorful and main part was born in the prisons of Iraq. The letters exchanged between Iranian war-prisoners and their families are part of this captivity literature.For Iranian prisoners, who were in captivity from two to ten years, there was no other way of communication than the two special letters delivered to them at the beginning or end of each month, or sometimes every two to three months. Once given to them. Obviously, in those few pages, a prisoner had to share important information with his family and write about his situation, and, in return, the family of the prisoner had to write back about the life of the family, the city and the country, and their friends to reduce the pain of his exile. In such limited and difficult conditions, and in such a small space of writing, half of which should be left empty for the recipient of the letter, a stream of literature-in-captivity was formed and those few pages were able to record a large part of prison-literature."From the beginning of 1359, when the first letters of Iranian prisoners of the Iran-Iraq war were received by their families, until August 1369, when the great exchange of prisoners began, within these ten years, that is, from the beginning of the war to the great freedom, we in the Office of the Missing Soldiers and Prisoners of War, exchanged about six million letters from both sides, and this was when almost half of our 40,000 prisoners were registered, and we learned about the presence of the rest of the prisoners in captivity only when they were released. And these letters were exchanged under the strictest limitations and different excuses of the Iraqis" (Afraz, 2019).The history of letter writing in Iran dates back to the Achaemenid period; at that time, words were written in cuneiform on the tanned skin of animals, and the skin was given to a chapar (mailman/messenger) to carry it to its destination. Of course, in the BCE history, writing was not used except in government offices and courts. 1800 years ago, when paper was made by the Chinese, letter writing on paper and book writing appeared, and letter writing became much easier (cf.: Amini, 1379: 43). In the history of Herodotus it is stated: "Harpak wrote a letter to Cyrus and encouraged him to fight with Astyaks (Korush's maternal grandfather) and in order for the letter to easily pass through the Medes and reach Persia, Harpak put it in the belly of a rabbit. He hid it and a letter carrier in hunter's clothes was able to deliver it to Cyrus. In the Torah, a letter and a decree from Cyrus about rebuilding the building of Jerusalem - which was destroyed by the Chaldean victory - is mentioned" (ibid.).The oldest work in Pahlavi language on the art of corresponndence is the small letter "Ayin Nama-Novisi". "This book contains special examples of correspondence in various cases and to various people. This text has forty-five paragraphs, each of which presents different methods in letter writing style. The first paragraph is an introduction in the description of those to whom the letter is written. In other paragraphs, the way of writing different types of praise, address, heading and title of a letter, sympathy and consolation, and how to start and finish a letter are mentioned (Mehdizadeh, 2012).

In 1387, the author of the present study took part in the national plan for collecting letters from Iranian ex-prisoners of war carried out by the Office of Resistance Literature and Art in Hozeh Honari, and collected more than 1500 letters from Kerman province; nearly 8000 letters by prisoners from other provinces was also collected and effort was made to determine those letters with coded messeges. The research method in this study is mainly based on analyzing collected letters, and memoirs of the ex-prisoners.

The contents expressed in the prisoners' letters were important and sometimes included war secrets, that is why it was tried to express these contents in code and in literary language, and these codes were revealed only between the writer and the reader.One type of literary arrangement that the writers of letters have used a lot to express secret content was simile, because the simile was understood only by the reader and the writer, and others did not know about it.Another type of literary figure that is used to express secret content in prisoners' letters is metaphor. Metaphor has been defined as "the use of a word in its non-real meaning along with the interest of similarity between the real and figurative meaning and the analogy that prevents the will of the real meaning. In fact, metaphor is a type of lexical permission whose interest is similarity, and sometimes it is interpreted as "metaphorical permission". For example, someone who has seen a brave man in school says “I saw a lion in school.” Lion hasbeen used in the meaning of a brave man, and the speaker actually has seen a similarity between the vehicl (lion) and its tenor (brave man), and has established communication (Hashmi, 2011: 1/258).Sometimes, in the structure of some letters, especially coded letters, an equivoque was used to express the purpose; the writers could use it, hidden from the eyes of the enemy, to explain things to their audience in a coded manner in order for the secret content about the war to be protected and the desired messages to be transmitted easily. Equivoque is the use a word with more than one meaning in poetry and prose, some of whose meanings are close to the mind, and some are detached.In captivity, to have a photo of Imam Khomeini or the officials of the Islamic Republic was considered as a crime. Correspondence with these people also had bad consequences for the prisoner, and if the enemy noticed a letter written by a prisoner, his first impression was that the writer of the letter was probably a prominent soldier who had been hiding his rank. Therefore, some prisoners accepted the risk and started writing letters with tricks such as using code words instead of the name of the official. During the years of captivity, some of the prisoners, as mentioned, wrote letters to the officials of the Islamic Republic and received answers. Imam Khomeini, may God bless him and grant him peace, Mr. Khamenei, Rafsanjani, Meshkini and some other officials were among the people who answered the letters of the prisoners, and these answers encouraged and created morale among the prisoners.One of the most important issues that had to be expressed in code language was the communication of war news and secrets. If these news were revealed to the enemy, it would result in the worst torture for the prisoners, and on the other hand, it would cause their army's plan to be turned upside down and lead to their defeat.

Coded letters showed that: 1. Literary language can be most useful in expressing content and news when necessary. 2. Forcing prisoners to write coded letters reveals the dire conditions of captivity and the filth of the Baathist regime and the hypocrites. 3. In secret letters, simile has been used the most because of its simplicity and its familiarity for the author and the reader, and equivoque has had the least use in these types of letters due to its ambiguity for the reader. 4. The simplicity and intimacy of the letters and the fact that most of them are devoid of literary language indicate the level of literacy of the letter writers at the high school level. 5. Most of the topics and content of the encrypted letters followed the same line, including issues such as politics, mentioning the names of the officials of the army, Basij and Sepah, family news, war secrets, and the pains of exile.The most repeated subject was mentioning the names of the officials of the Islamic Republic, especially Imam Khomeini. 6. Much of the sensitive content of the news and war secrets has been conveyed through pun, which shows the utmost cleverness of the Iranian prisoners. Contrary to the opinnion of some people who interpret literature based only on the scale of pleasure, these could confuirm the practicality of literature.

Light and darkness in the similar verses of the Qur'an are among the words that have been interpreted in many ways, and very complex mystical issues have been raised around these words. And the book Bayan-al-Sadah fi Maqamat-ul-Ibadah by Sultan Mohammad Gonabadi is one of the Shia interpretations, which gave a mystical interpretation of the words light and darkness to the taste of Shia. Based on the investigations, it can be said that light in this interpretation is interpreted as the unity of existence, soul, inner peace and religious leader; and darkness is interpreted as absolute absence, multiplicity, self-interests, lusts, limits and shortcomings. And contrary to the opinion of some commentators who consider God to be the owner of light and not light itself, based on this interpretation it can be said that God is both the essence of light and the owner of light, and is enlightening in relation to others. That is, light is both the truth of existence, which is the first right of the Supreme Being, and in its essence, it is without apparent cause and agent, and it is also an illuminant other than itself, of real and accidental types. And darkness is the absence of light, nature, limits and defects; which itself is hidden by nature and also hides other than itself, and this dignity is the nature of limits and absences that comes from the degradation of weakness. This research has been done by analyzing the qualitative content of the text.

Some similarities in the elements and components of the story of Adam (AS) are about Adam's rebellion, the relationship between Adam's descent and his caliphate, the divine covenant, and the divine names. The questions that arise in the mind of the audience and interpretations reveal the need for a hermeneutic analysis of this issue. Meybodi and Gonabadi have deciphered the similar, symbolic, and cryptic themes of Adam's story with a mystical approach. The reason for choosing these two interpretations  is that both of them by using  mystical interpretation and  the cryptographic language have tried to clarify some ambiguous elements of this story. The story of Adam is full of secrets and mysteries addressed  in  past commentary books with different interpretations. The Quranic interpretations choose various approaches such as rational, narrative, ijtihad, mystical, etc. Among them, mystical interpretations in terms of hermeneutic approach and the use of symbolic language have been more powerful and attractive in clarifying the semantic ambiguities of the verses. Among these interpretations,  the interpretation of Meybodi’s Kashf-al asrar and Gonabadi’s Bayan-al Saadat fi maghamat-al Abadat could be mentioned In the present study, we deal with the interpretable elements of the story of Adam (AS) in the above-mentioned works. In this qualitative study, the data were collected using the content analysis method. From a hermeneutic point of view, Meybodi and Gonabadi, while expressing various meanings of the divine names and words, by expressing their depth and mystery have provided the audience with a way to offer other interpretations and, based on modern hermeneutics, consider the final meanings impossible. However, they have not explicitly stated this. In the mystical interpretation of the similarities of the story of Adam (AS), Gonabadi takes an approach which focuses on  ijtihad and reasoning while  Meybodi uses  a tasteful approach  with a mystical and romantic tone. Both commentators have tried to find an interpretation of Adam's rebellion or infallibility, but in all the verses of Adam’s story, it seems that the prohibition of eating the fruit of the tree was for the sake of guidance and benevolence. Meybodi considers the divine names as subtle points or the secrets of God which have been entrusted in the heart of Man by the command of God, and no other being is worthy of carrying the divine trust. Yet,  Gonabadi believes that the divine names are in Adam’s intelligence. In the Holy Qur'an, a combination of traditional and modern hermeneutic approaches can be seen. In similar verses, on the one hand, the knowledge of the intention of the author, who is God, is important;  on the other hand, it is not possible to reach the final meanings because the celestial text originates from a vast and infinite source of knowledge which is not limited.

One of the very argumentative and doubt-creating issues in the minds of those who advance in the direction of the cognition of Qur’anic ayahs and their explication for the readership, is the nature of mutashabih ayahs and their basic difference with muhkam ayahs, which might otherwise set the ground for the interpretability, plurality, polysemy and sometimes the misunderstanding of those addressees whose have not reached the purity of heart. Pondering over the Qur’anic ayahs explicates two basic philosophies of mutashabih ayahs: on the one hand the rhetorical language of the Qur’an and its being symbolic in bringing up some topics, both of which, on the other hand, having to do with hermeneutics whether in its traditional or modern form especially in mystical interpretations. One of the notable mystical interpretations, is Abulfazl Meybodi's (6th century AH) Kashf al-Asrar that in the third turn addresses the interpretation Qur’anic ayahs using a literary and mystical language. The present study's major question concerns the possibility to analyze, from the perspective of traditional or modern hermeneutics, important mutashabih ayahs in the mystical interpretation of Kashf al-Asrar expressed using an interpretable secret language and with rhetorical beauties. The research method used is content analysis. Analyzing mutashabih ayahs in Meybodi's interpretation taking a hermeneutic approach is worth investigation. Therefore, we will first focus on hermeneutics and its varying meanings in the Qur’an as well as its alignment with types of hermeneutic and then we will address the classification of mutashabih ayahs in terms of form and meaning, muhkam and mutashabih ayahs in connection with unity of acts, in the being of humans, and in the world of creation and exegetes' ideas in this regard.

A significant area of the country's rangelands is degraded due to various factors and an important part of rangeland species is endangered or their population is severely reduced. Rangeland improvement and reclamation through selecting suitable species and finding the best cultivation methods are of utmost importance in these rangelands. Therefore, according to the results of the research project performed in the Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands, the seeds of Sa.arbuscula were collected from different rangelands of Semnan province along with the existing populations. The study was conducted in a randomized complete block design with three replications at Semnan Research Station since 2011 for five years. The data were analyzed using SAS software and the means were compared with Duncan's test. Our results clearly showed that among the study accessions of Sa. arbuscular, the genotypes 230 and 234 with an establishment percentage of 86.67% and 84.02% were superior, respectively. Therefore, the genotypes 230 and 234 could be recommended for rangeland improvement and reclamation.

Iranian oral culture has been formed of ethnic cultures and social groups. This rich culture expresses the words from birth to death of human. The culture and literature of people in Jiroft are considered in this article in which its own characteristics are focused. The present study of proverbs which is a part of the oral literature studied in a library process. The study is divided into two types of oral literature including: the first kind of words such as the combination, shifting, deletion, and addition; and it is understandable to some extent for the Persian speakers and it is known as imported proverbs which is influenced by poems of Persian poets especially Hafiz and Saadi; due to the type, Several of them have been studied briefly. But the second kind of proverbs regarding the local severe accent refers to the life accessories, agricultural equipment and the terms are specific to this region. Thus, it is incomprehensible for other dialects. Because of the uniqueness of this type, our research focused on the second type. The themes of the second type of proverbs include the handling of the beloved, threats, advice, humor and tease in representation of their culture, tradition, and Customs. We transcribe, translate, and divide the use of these proverbs.

Most of the rangelands in Iran have been destroyed and a main part of rangeland plants are threeatened or their populations are reduced. In order to stability, reclamation of rangeland with adaptable species and finding the best cultivation method are of special priority. The present study was done to evaluate the stablishment percentage of Salsola rigida populations in different vegentation regions of Semnan provionce. Based on the results of reasearch project, seeds were collected and cultivated from different regions of the rangelands. For determination of population stablishment percentage, a randomized completelty block design were conducted in triplicate under farm conditions between 2013-2015 and the data were analyzed. Among the accessions, the genotype code 232 (originated from Chahakeh 6, Haj Ali Kavir) and 229 (originated from down road, Alay Village) had the highest and lowest stablishment percentage, respectively. Findings of the present research illustrated that genotype code 232 of S. rigida can be used for reclamation of rangelands in the study area.

In this study, species of Salsola rigida, Seidlitzia rosmarinus, Atriplex canescens and Anabasis setifera were investigated to identify appropriate species for planting together with Haloxylon ammodendron. This research was aimed to use spaces among shrub species and to enhance the ecosystems in which H. Ammodendron species are distributed. The study was performed in a randomized complete blocks design with three replications and six treatments at research station of natural resources of Semnan. The measured traits were included annual growth (measuring the thickest branch, flowering branch and the length of horizontal branches), forage yield and seedling establishment. Results of analysis of variance showed that there were no significant differences among blocks. A significant difference was observed for seedling establishment at 1% level of probability. High growth and canopy cover of H. ammodendron significantly differed with other species. A. setifera, S. rosmarinus and A.canescens were respectively in the best position in term of number of sub-branches. This feature is important in controlling erosion and resistance to grazing. H. ammodendron, S. rigida and S. rosmarinus showed suitable condition in terms of forage yield. No significant differences were observed for seedling establishment. Maximum number of the established species were recorded for A.canescens, S.rigida, N.schoberi, A.setifera, S.rosmarinus and H.ammodendron, respectively.