مهین رضایی

One of the important issues that has made thinkers in the field of philosophy of religion think and reflect, is the discussion of reality and, in a more scientific sense, the objectivity of the "transcendent". being real; In other words, the transcendent has an truth independent of the mind, which this issue is presented in religious experience as essentialism, against which the idea of constructivism is raised. Norman Geisler and Allameh Tabatabai are two thinkers who have taken an essentialist approach to this issue and have tried to prove the objectivity of the transcendent with their arguments. Comparative comparison of the ideas of these two thinkers -that is novel subject- is the subject of this article, the differences and similarities of which have been explained. Allameh used the word "transcendent being" and Geisler used the word "transcendent object". According to Geisler, (the sum of philosophical reason and religious experience) and in the thought of Allama, moderate rationalism is observed. Geisler's method is empirical and philosophical, and Allameh's method is broad and includes philosophical, cosmological, intuitive-mystical, and revelatory methods. The result of such an adaptation is that the principles, methods, and concepts are distinct in the two ideas, but as a result, a similar expression is presented. Therefore, we reached the final hypothesis, which is the result of a combination of two ideas, and based on the distinction between "investigability" and "excellence process", Allameh's approach to investigability and Norman's approach to the excellence process are preferred.

The word was coined in the theory of memetics by Dawkins for the first time. Is. Dawkins' definition will come as the first definition in the text. Other people, such as Susan Blackmer, have "defined 3 memes" as "imitations." has done What distinguishes man from other animals can be summed up in one word. "Culture" and the word "culture" are comparable to gene transfer in that they create a kind of evolution (Dawkins, 1976, p. 273). The contemporaneity of this theory and the explanation of religion through evolutionary evolution can be considered as reasons for the importance of this theory. Dawkins' definition will come as the first definition in the text. The word was coined in the theory of memetics by Dawkins for the first time. Is. Dawkins' definition will come as the first definition in the text. Other people, such as Susan Blackmer, have "defined 3 memes" as "imitations." has done What distinguishes man from other animals can be summed up in one word. "Culture" and the word "culture" are comparable to gene transfer in that they create a kind of evolution (Dawkins, 1976, p. 273). The contemporaneity of this theory and the explanation of religion through evolutionary evolution can be considered as reasons for the importance of this theory. Dawkins' definition will come as the first definition in the text.

One of the disputes between the theologians was recognition of the first duty upon the Mukallaf (the religious duty-bound). The Mo’atazeleh and Asha’ereh theologians consider recognizing the Almighty God through the reasoning to be the first Wajib (Islamic duty). Some consider the reason behind it to be intellectual, and some others believe it is Sam’ee. However, they had no conflict in terms of the original topic. With this approach, the distance between the faith and the disbelief is based on the knowledge or ignorance of the Almighty God, in a way that the one who knows God is considered a believer and the one who does not know him is an unbeliever.
Ghazali, the fifth century’s theologian, opposed this thought. He took the knowledge or ignorance of the Almighty God through reasoning out of the circle of belief and disbelief. In this regard, he banned immersing in theology except for some limited cases and separated the faith from recognition (of God). With this approach, he obliged the public to imitate and surrender to beliefs, and whoever disobeyed deserved punishment.
The current study has analyzed Ghazali’s thoughts on intellectual reasoning for recognizing the Almighty God by using a descriptive-analytical method and believes that Ghazali has not obliged the Mukallaf to provide reasoning for religious principles and has supported the imitation in terms of beliefs and its derivatives.

One of the controversial issues in the religious experience is the reality of the "transcendent". The "transcendent" is one of the most important positive features of religious experience, which the constructivists consider it to be born in the mind or as a human subconscious. Norman L. Geisler, as an essentialist, claims that the object of a religious experience is something real. In his book Philosophy of Religion, in proving the reality of the transcendence, he has put forward an argument which, in his own interpretation, is based on the "empirical method". This method is based on the combination of the two components of "inner need" and "external experience". In this article we explain and analyze Geisler's argument and also explore his rational and empirical foundations including: empirical method, comprehensiveness principle, necessity of verification of the existence of the transcendent, preference of empirical credibility over the logical possibility of deception, the experience of supplying the human’s real needs, uncredibility of the denial of the reality of the transcendent, the generality and reality of the religious experience, the basicness of the need for the transcendent (sense of origination and dependence), the possibility of satisfying the need for the “transcendent”, and the existential need for the "transcendent". After evaluating the the presuppositions of the argument (i.e. common nature of human beings, the similarity between physical and mental needs, the problem of transcendence in atheism, being based on induction, the transmission from general to particular, relativism in addressing religion) we finally came to the conclusion that such a belief is justified for him, because this belief originates from an inner need. Moreover, for the subject of experience, this belief is also "true", because the objectivity of the transcendent is approved.

The concept of faith and reasoning and how they are related is one of the controversial issues that humanity has been facing for a long time. Norman Malcolm, an American philosopher and one of Wittgenstein's most famous students and commentators, has a unique expression about faith and reasoning and the relationship between the two, relying on Wittgenstein's later thoughts such as language game, the form of life, etc. By presenting similarities between the philosophical understanding and the characteristics of Wittgenstein's religious thought, Malcolm intends to find a solid relationship between faith and reasoning. Malcolm has explained the types of resemblance between faith and reasoning by appealing to concepts such as the finality of explanation, religious wonder, the elimination of error, the belief in the primacy of action and the groundlessness of belief. This issue leads him to the fact that the source of faith and reasoning is one thing, and in other words, these two are connected in a baseless foundation. In this article, with a descriptive-analytical method and in a systematic manner, an attempt has been made both to achieve a correct understanding of Malcolm's thoughts about the relationship between faith and reasoning, using his works and passages, and to review the opinions and criticisms of his critics such as Peter Winch and Kai Nelson.

Abu Hamid Muhammad Ghazali was among Muslim scholars who accepted the interpretation in the religious scriptures and justified his position by the theory of interpretation. To prove his theory, he dealt with ontology of hierarchy of beings and epistemology of hierarchy in episteme and differences of apprehension as well. Ghazali, by passing of existence and knowledge entered the language and meaning, expanding and enriching the human understanding in his age. By this theory, Ghazali held that every single entity has a position in its related hierarchy of being, and to understand the scripture must study their position in hierarchy of existence. Doing so, he tried to advance a methodological interpretation with a ontological, epistemological, semantics and linguistic approach, in which reason and faith can be a harmony. Ghazali’s philosophical approach to human apprehension has been studied in this paper and his analysis of soul and its faculties introduced. His use of philosophical approach to apprehension to justify the theory of has been explained, as well. Thus, one could say that Ghazali as a rationalist scholar employed philosophical investigations to set up his theory.

One of the important topics that has made thinkers of the philosophy of religion contemplate by its own nature or as a reaction to constructivists – who believe in the subjectivity and non-objectivity of God – is the reality  or – more scientifically stated – objectivity of the Transcendental Being. ‘Allāma Ṭabāṭabā’ī is one of the thinkers in this arena the rereading of whose thought can help explain his approach to the question of God’s objectivity. After the explanation of the theoretical framework of objectivity, we have explained, reread, and analyzed ‘Allāma’s thought in the domain of God’s objectivity. The results show that ‘Allāma has addressed objectivity in the discussions of ontology, epistemology (on the accuracy of beliefs related to God), and semantics (on the congruence of propositions with the External Being of God as a true and real Matter). The triple concepts of objectivity – i.e., Transcendental Being, transcendental belief, and transcendental proposition – in ‘Allāma’s thought means that God’s Being and Essence is independent from mind (Transcendental Being), the belief or statement about God is metaphysically objective (transcendental epistemology), and the proposition about God can be evaluated by checking its truthfulness/falsity (transcendental proposition).

Nasr’s philosophy of Art contains several affirmative components such as connecting with tradition, the sacredness, the truth of being, utility of art in ordinary life and etc. First we have explained those components. on the other hand, his theory contains several negative components such as the critic of the modern art, the critic of utilitarianism, the critic of the artist’s central role and etc. These aspects, too, have been explained in this paper. Following description, we have deal with this question: What the contemporary artist or audience of artwork would gain if he looks to art from Nasr’s view point.

Averroes, the famous philosopher of the Islamic world, tries to prove the religious authority of philosophy in the famous treatise "fasl al-Maghal fi ma bayn al-Hikmat va al-Shariat men al-Etesal". To show this authority, he uses the phrase "Therefore take a lesson, O you who have eyes" in the second verse of Surah al-Hashr (No. 59). This verse is the place of dispute between commentators, jurists and theologians, and each of them has expressed possibilities for the word "E'tebar" (validity/taking a lesson) in this verse. One group considers it to mean advice and another group considers it to express the authority of religious or jurisprudential. Since Ibn Rushd equates "validity" with rational analogy, the leading question is why did he adopt such a view? Andwhether this tendency was based on a reason?

Based on his psychoanalytic principles, Freud provided an analysis of the origin and function of religion that influenced a wide range of twentieth-century thinkers. These influences often played a negative role, so most religious people either rejected Freud's analysis or viewed it with skepticism. Plantinga is one of the thinkers who adopt a relatively special view to Freud's analysis. In this article, we first briefly describe Freud's analysis of the origin and function of religion. We then present Plantinga's view on Freud's analysis, and finally show what role Plantinga's attention to Freud plays in the formation of Plantinga's religious epistemology. That is, one of Plantinga's main motives in discussing the theory of the fundamentality of belief in God, sensus divinitatis, and the theory of warranted belief is to avoid facing the doubt raised by Freud. However, a study of Plantinga's religious epistemology shows that his solution is not adequate, and that Freud's doubt cannot be answered through the way Plantinga has adopted.

Bedaye al-Mojtahid va al-Nehaye al-Moghtased by Ibn-e Roshd, referred to as Bedaye al-Mojtahid in this paper, is a book about comparative fiqh, in which a special logical method is used based on the philosophical mind of Ibn-e Roshd. To prove this claim, in this paper we have differentiated between knowledge of casuistry and comparative fiqh, and the basis of comparative fiqh is supposed to be dialectics which is the basis of argument, not lessening adversary. Therefore, the present paper seeks to introduce this kind of comparative fiqh and its logical method and to show the signs in Bedaye al-Mojtahid. The discussion has been presented in three pivots: 1. comparative fiqh is based on good dialectics and is different from rebuttal writing; 2-Good dialectics is an introduction to the argument; 3. Ibn Rushd's philosophical mind has used this subject in Bedaye al-Mojtahid.

N. Wolterstorff in his book (Divine Discourse: Philosophical Reflections on the Claim that God Speaks. Cambridge University Press 1995 ) ,presents new approach about God`s nature of revelation as Divine Discourse. Using Speech acts theory he claims that beyond of revelation, God discourses with human .He uses the word (discourse) in the Literally meaning than metaphorical. His main claim about nature of revelation is that God Instead of revelating operates speech act but He doesn't use words and physical apparatus. So when we say that God speaks, in the exact meaning He uses illocutionary act. Revelation as Gods illocutionary act requires accepting some presuppositions, Principles and specific ontological and epistemological repercussions . This essay at first tries to clarify linguistic origin of Speech act theory and its basic elements based on Austin`s speech act theory. Then tries to reflect on the use of this theory in N.W 's approach on Revelation.

The aim of this study was to find out whether listening to English songs can improve pre-intermediate EFL learners’ listening comprehension. To this end, a non-randomized pretest-posttest control group design as one of the quasi-experimental research designs was employed. The sample of the study consisted of 40 male and female English learners from two classes in an Institute in Marand, Iran. The two classes were randomly assigned into the experimental and control groups.  Then, a PET test was used to check the homogeneity of both groups. The listening section of PET was also considered as the pretest of the study. Then, fifteen English songs were used in the experimental group during the treatment period. Each session, within 45 minutes, one song was played for and practiced with the learners. Meanwhile, the control group had their usual teacher -fronted class without listening to songs. At the end, both groups were post tested on their listening comprehension using the listening section of another version of PET. The collected data were analyzed using Independent-Samples and Paired-Samples t-tests. The results revealed a statistically significant improvement in the performance of the experimental group. It is implied that songs are not only an entertaining tool but they can also be used as a pedagogic material in improving learners’ listening comprehension.

Abstract The aim of this study was comparison of sedation and analgesia between two drug combinations i.e. propofol+ fentanyl and ketamine+fentanyl, in patients with End stage renal disease, (ESRD) who were candidates for insertion of ‘Perm Cath’ catheter for the purpose of hemodialysis. Fifty one candidates for ‘perm cath’ catheter insertion were enrolled in this study. They were divided into three groups: Propofol+fentanyl; ketamine+fentanyl, and placebo. Systolic and diastolic blood pressure, heart rate and respiratory rate were measured before the procedure and then every 5 minute until the end of the procedure. Xylocaine was infiltrated at the site of insertion in all groups. Propofol1mg/kg with fentanyl 1micgr/kg were injected in propofol group, and ketamine 0.5mg/kg with fentanyl 1micgr/kg in the ketamine group. Pain was measured with Ambesh score in the beginning of catheter insertion and sedation was measured with Ramsay score at the beginning of procedure and at insertion of catheter in the heart. Patient satisfaction was measured qualitatively in the PACU. Comparative evaluation of mean heart rate, mean systolic and diastolic blood pressure and mean respiratory rate were different among the three groups, (P<0.05).Frequency distribution of pain was different among groups in the beginning of the procedures (P=0.001); also sedation score was different in the beginning of the procedures and when the catheter entered the heart among the three groups (P<0.001). Patients satisfaction score was higher in propofol group, (P=0.001). Local infiltration of Xylocaine at Perm Cath insertion is insufficient to produce sedation and analgesia, and it is necessary to use sedative drugs in combination. Both methods of sedation: propofol+fentanyl and ketamine+fentanyl provide sedation and analgesia effectively. Propofol appears to be superior in providing stability of vital signs, sedation and patient satisfaction. KEYWORDS: Perm Cath, ESRD, Sedation, Propofol, Ketamine, Monitoring anesthesia care.