وحید زرین نیا

The gray mold disease of Botrytis cinerea (tel: Botryotinia fuckeliana), in the end part of the tail of the soft and watery fruit, turns green and shriveled. The disease agent maintains its survival in the form of sclerotia in the soil, mycelium in contaminated plant residues, and also in the form of asexual spores in the air. This polyphagous fungus causes disease in vegetable and summer greenhouse products such as tomatoes, peppers, cucumbers and eggplants under cool and humid conditions. In this research, sampling was done during 2013-2014 from the greenhouses of Varamin region and identification of Botrytis cinerea fungus was done in BSM special culture medium. In order to study the morphology of the fungus, the structure of the progeny, the shape of the conidia, the type of filaments, and the spores and sclerotia were studied. The distribution pattern of this fungus on the surface of the colonies in the culture medium and the effects of resistance to the three fungicides benomyl, carbendazim and fenhexamid were investigated by creating different groups of B. cinerea. The correlation of the obtained data was evaluated in SPSS software. The results of the data analysis showed that this pathogen has a considerable morphological diversity and resistance in Varamin city, which is useful in the production of vegetable and summer cultivars resistant to gray rot disease, as well as evaluating the diversity in fungus morphology and disease-causing characteristics of this pathogen in Varamin areas, and similar areas to the geography of Varamin region will be used.

Longevity and maintaining quality after harvesting ornamental plants is very important. The present study was conducted in order to investigate the effect of different methods and concentrations of salicylic acid on quality and vase life of alstroemeria (Alstroemeria spp.) cut flowers, in the form of a factorial experiment based on a completely randomized statistical design with 12 treatments, 3 replications and each replication containing 5 branches was performed. After harvesting, 45 alstroemeria flower branches were placed in long-term storage solutions containing salicylic acid (50, 100 and 150 mg/liter) along with 3% sucrose. 45 branches were placed in short-term storage solutions (24 hours) of salicylic acid (50, 100 and 150 mg/liter) and then transferred to containers containing distilled water with 3% sucrose. 45 branches were placed in containers containing distilled water with 3% sucrose and sprayed with salicylic acid (50, 100 and 150 mg/liter). Distilled water was used as a control (long-term), replaced after 24 as a control (short-term) and sprayed as a control (solution spraying). The morphophysiological, biochemical and life characteristics of alstroemeria cut flowers were evaluated on the 5, 10 and 15 days of the experiment. The results showed that the short-term treatment of salicylic acid 100 mg/liter had the greatest effect in improving the relative fresh weight of flowers, petal anthocyanins and the activity of polyphenol oxidase and peroxidase enzymes. The long-term treatment of salicylic acid 100 mg/liter increased the stability index of cell membrane, soluble solids and total chlorophyll leaf compared to other treatments. Also, the longest vase life Alstroemeria cut flowers was obtained in the long-term treatment of salicylic acid 100 mg/liter with 17.2 days and the lowest in the control (long-term) equal to 9.3 days.

Soil and water salinity is one of the serious and developing problems in the world, and large areas of the countrys land are also facing this problem. The use of fungal and bacterial microorganisms, which are considered the most important soil microorganisms, has become a global solution to reduce environmental stresses such as salinity. Therefore, in order to investigate the effect of fungi and bacteria improve the resistance of date palms to salt stress, an experiment was conducted in Shadgan city in Khuzestan province. In order to screen salt-resistant fungal strains, 36 strains fungi isolated from the date palm rhizosphere zone were cultured in concentrations of  zero, 2500, 5000, 7500, 10000, 12500, 15000 mg/liter of sodium salt. The average diameter growth and inhibition percentage showed that the lowest inhibition percentage due to salt salinity was observed in Fusarium solani, Aspergillus niger, Pencillium chrysoyenum, Aspergillus tubingensis. The use of salinity-resistant fungis in the form of elicitors is recommended under salinity stress conditions. However, considering the role of Fusarium solani fungus in Date root rot disease, the application of this fungus needs more extensive studies. Biological screening of bacteria the ACC-Deaminase production evaluation method showed that Bacillus Pumilus and Bacillus safensis bacteria have the ability to produce more enzymes. This enzyme breaks the precursor of ethylene production under stress conditions and prevents the production of ethylene Wich is produced under stress  conditions.

Water and soil salinity are one of the serious and developing problems in the world, and a large area of the country's land is also facing this problem. The use of fungal microorganisms in reducing environmental stress such as salinity has become a global solution. In order to evaluate the effect of fungal elicitors on the concentrations of photosynthetic pigments and the amount of proline under salinity stress conditions of Otamaran date palm seedlings, a factorial experiment was conducted in the form of a completely randomized design with 3 levels of salinity and 3 levels of biological elicitors in the horticultural science laboratory. became. The effect of elicitors at 3 levels of fungal consortium (bioactive) (BFC), fungal elicitor with 1000 PPM concentration (EL1), fungal elicitor with 2000 PPM concentration (EL2), the second factor of salinity at three levels (zero, 150 and 300 mM) was evaluated. The results showed that at 300 mM salinity, EL1 mushroom elicitor was able to increase proline compared to other salinity levels. EL2 mushroom elicitor showed more chlorophyll a and total at 300 mM salinity level, and at 150 mM salinity level, the live fungus consortium caused more chlorophyll a. The use of elicitor can be effective in reducing the effects of salinity stress in dates, but the level of stress can determine the effect of each elicitor.

The use of natural and compatible compounds with nature and humans in order to produce products free of chemicals and harmful substances with higher nutritional and medicinal value, which is accompanied by a reduction in food waste, seems necessary. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of different treatments jasmonic acid (20, 10, 5 µg/l), epibrasinolide (10, 7, 4, 1 µm/l), cinnamon essential oil (750,1000, 500, 250 ppm), and chitosan (10, 7.5, 5, 2.5 g/ l) on physicochemical sensory properties and shelf life of Thomson Navel oranges. Evaluation of physicochemical and sensory properties and shelf life of treated fruits during 0, 15, 30, 45 and 60 days after harvest was performed. The results of this study showed that in general, the most effective treatment to maintain fruit quality characteristics such as (total acidity: 3.24, soluble solids: 16.39ºBrix, vitamin C: 48.94 mg/100 g FW, carotenoids: 61.10 mg/100 g FW) was obtained with Jasmonic acid treatment at a concentration of 40 μl / l. Chitosan at concentration of 10 g/ l with of 57.6 days had the highest fruit shelf life. According to the obtained results, 40 μl / l of jasmonic acid seems to be effective in order to maintain valuable nutritional properties and 10 g / l of chitosan to increase storage life.

The Safflower Carthamus with the scientific name tinctorius Carthamus L. belongs to the composite family and has antioxidant activity.Antifungal activity of silver nanoparticles synthesized by Safflower Carthamus extract was investigated against bean root rot disease caused by Fusarium solani in laboratory, greenhouse and field conditions.The synthesis of silver nanoparticles was evaluated by spectroscopic analysis (UV.Vis), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM).Factor disease severity were investigated in each pinto bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) plant.The results of the formation of silver nanoparticles were confirmed by changing the color of the silver nitrate solution to dark brown after adding the extract to the silver nitrate solution. The existence of the absorption maximum by UV-Vis analysis in the range of 415 nm is a proof of the synthesis of nanoparticles.Transmission electron microscopy showed the shape of nanoparticles to be spherical. XRD analysis showed the average size of nanoparticles to be 20 nanometers.In laboratory conditions, using the technique of mixing with the culture medium, the minimum growth inhibitory concentration (MIC) on the mycelial growth rate of the fungus was 200 ppm. PPM was evaluated by impregnating bean seeds with nanoparticles. The results of analysis of variance showed that the interaction effect between the concentration of different nanoparticles and the effect of the disease-causing fungus on the measured indicators is significant.

Mycorrhiza is a common group of microorganisms that can establish symbiotic relations with plants. To evaluate symbiosis and compatibility between a collection of chicory seeds and mycorrhizal fungi, through inoculation, a factorial experiment is set up in a randomized complete block design. Two batches of chicory seed (Ardabil and Fars) are inoculated by two species of mycorrhizal fungi (Glomus mosseae and Glomus intraradices) with the control group of the seeds not being inoculated at all. Three replicates have been arranged in a greenhouse. The research aims at examining how the two species of mycorrhizal fungi affect several plant traits and the amounts of phytochemical compounds (i.e. phenol, flavonoids, antioxidant activity, chlorophyll a and b, total chlorophyll), fresh and dry weights of roots and root length. It also deals with chicory roots’ ability to absorb several elements. Results show that seed batch and mycorrhizal fungi have significant impacts on vegetative traits, chlorophyll content, phenol, total flavonoids, and antioxidant activity in plants. The highest amounts of total phenol production (3.77 mg/g fresh weight), total flavonoids (1.21 mg/g fresh weight), antioxidant activity (5.23 mg/g fresh weight), root growth and chlorophyll content are observed in the Ardabil batch when treated with G. intraradices. The lowest amounts of these values are recorded in the Fars batch where no mycorrhizal inoculation has been applied. The two batches of seeds grow into plants with different growth rates and phytochemical compositions. The growth parameters of plants improve in the case of mycorrhizal inoculation. The effects of G. intraradices are more efficient than those of G. mosseae in symbiosis with chicory plants. Based on the results of the present study and considering the compatibility of mycorrhiza with the environment, the use of these fungi can substantially increase the yield of various plants, especially medicinal plants.

The edible insects are consumed as an alternative animal protein source by most Asian countries. Since there is a limited evidence for their safety particularly from microbiological aspects, an attempt was made to assess the microbial population of Tenebrio molitor L. samples in laboratory conditions. Primary stocks were purchased from a local market, in Sari- a city in north of Iran. Microbial samples were prepared from both body surfaces and guts of insect. Samples were individually and cultured on nutrient agar (NA), incubated at taken 270C for 24-72h. Distinguished colonies were isolated and purified. Based on phenotypic characteristics, hypersensitive response (HR) on geranium leaves, as well as 16S rRNA gene sequencing analysis, the isolates were categorized into two groups. The pathogenic isolates were identified as Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus sp, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterobacter asburiae, Bacillus firmus and Serratia marcescens. Whereas, the nonpathogenic bacteria were assigned as Enterobacter cloacae and Bacillus thuringiensis. Undoubtedly, the presence of pathogenic microbes in the microflora of mealworm larvae by direct and indirect consumption of insect may pose a threat to human and animal health. These findings suggest an implementation of certain processing methods in order to decrease or eradicate risks of microbial contamination of diets using natural insects.

Rose is one of the most important cut flowers in the world, which its post-harvest preservation is considered as an important challenge. In this research, the effect of 200, 400 and 600 ppm concentrations of chitosan, cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.) and cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum L.) essential oils on post-harvest quality and inhibition of fungi Botrytis cinerea, the cause of gray mold disease, was evaluated in rose cv. Dolce Vita cut flower under laboratory conditions. For this purpose, the flowers were put in solutions with different concentrations for one hour and then were transferred into distilled water until the end of vase life.  Characteristics such as vase life, petal membrane stability index, leaf chlorophyll content, leaf, petal and stem water content, and petal soluble carbohydrate content were analyzed and recorded for 9 days after treatment with 3 days intervals. Application of herbal essential oils and chitosan at different post-harvest times resulted in improvement of most of the studied traits. Concentration of 200 ppm of chitosan and essential oils of cinnamon and cumin treatments was better than other concentrations in improving the majority of survival traits.  Treatments at 400 and 600 ppm concentrations prevented the growth of B. cinerea completely, too.  The results of this study indicated that the use of chitosan and plant essential oils of cumin and cinnamon improved post-harvest qualitative characteristics and inhibited B. cinerea fungi and thus increased the vase life of rose cv. Dolce Vita. Therefore, the use of these bio-compounds in the form of a stable formulation is recommended to increase the shelf-life and improve the quality and quantity of rose cut flower.

Tomato gray mold disease, caused by Botrytis cinerea, is one of the most important tomato diseases. In recent years, the application of nanoparticles for the control of plant diseases has been given special attention. In this research, the effect of copper oxide nanoparticles biosynthesized by plant extract of eucalyptus was investigated. Three experiments were conducted in order to control the severity of gray mold disease under different growth conditions. In the first experiment, the effects of nanoparticles at concentrations of 100, 200, 400 and 600 ppm were investigated. In the second experiment, two more concentrated extracts i.e. 800 and 1200 were investigated. In the third experiment, the effect of three concentrations of 400, 600 and 800 ppm of copper oxide nanoparticles on the severity of mildew disease on detached leaves was investigated. The results of all three experiments indicated that 1) Copper oxide nanoparticles can control the growth of B. cinerea and gray mildew disease in both in vitro and in vitro conditions. 2) The relationship between the concentration of copper oxide nanoparticles and the inhibitory effect on fungal growth and disease control was invertible and significant at 1% probability level (P≤1%). In fact, the most effective concentrations were obtained at 400 and 600 ppm, 800 and 1200 ppm, and 600 and 800 ppm under in vitro, in vivo,and detached leaf assay, respectively. Accordingly, with increasing concentrations of copper oxide nanoparticles, the rate of growth of the fungus colony decreased and the severity of the disease decreased. Based on these results, the application of green synthesized copper oxide nanoparticles was recommended in controlling of gray mold disease caused by Botrytis cinerea.

Wilting disease caused by Fusarium oxysporum f.sp lycopersici is one of the most important tomato diseases. Regarding to the destructive effects of overuse of chemical pesticides in the environment, applying of nonchemical compounds for plant disease control is unavoidable. Therefore the goal of this research was producing of green silver nanoparticles and understanding of their fungicide effects on F1 and F16 strains of F.o.f.sp.lycopersici. For this reason, fungicide effects of Ag NPs that were made under dark and lighting conditions, investigated by factorial method under CRD examination with three replications for each treatments. All experiments were done under in vitro and in vivo conditions. Treatments were distilled water as negative control, 25, 75, 100 and 120 mg L-1 concentrations of Ag NPs suspension and aqueous sour orange extract. More effectively treatments regarding to their capability for highest inhibitory effects on fungal growth under in vitro condition were selected and used for in vivo experiments. These treatments were 50, 100, 200 and 300 mg L-1 concentrations of Ag NPs (were made under dark and lightening conditions) that were applying as pre and post treatments on diseased tomato plants by F.o.f.sp.lycopersici. Morphological properties, disease incidence (DI) and disease severity (DS) were evaluated in this section. Finally the results of this research show that, 120 mg L-1 concentration of Ag NPs (were made under dark condition) had the highest inhibitory effects on F1 and F16 strains of F.o.f.sp.lycopersici under in vitro condition. Also under in vivo condition, 300 mg L-1 concentration of Ag-NPs (were made under dark condition) was more effectively than other concentrations and it could be reducing DI and DS. But yield of tomato with 300 mg L-1 concentration of Ag-NPs was reduced regarding to Ag NPs toxicity effects.

In order to investigate the effect of salicylic acid, potassium silicate and fungal Elicitor in calendula under salinity stress conditions, a factorial arrangement in a randomized design with three levels of salinity (0-300600ppm) and 3 levels of salicylic acid, potassium silicate and fungal Elicitor (300-600-900 ppm) in 3 replicates. The highest amount ofH2O2was observed in potassium silicate treatment with a concentration of 300 ppm and a value of 68.87 nmol / g fresh weight. The highest amount of catalase enzyme in Salinity SA was obtained 600 ppm with a value of 0.0584 mg / d of protein per minute. The average number of leaves in potassium silicate treatment was higher than other treatments. The lowest root diameter in a substrate with 600 ppm salinity was observed at a concentration of 300 ppm in penicillium fungicidal oligoetherium with a value of 0.61 mM. In the concentration of 900 ppm in non-saline bed, the highest root diameter was observed with a value of 1. 08 mm

In this research population structure of Botrytis cinerea (tel: Botryotinia fuckeliana) determined by vegetative compatibility groups (VCGs) using sulfate non utilizing mutants (sul). For this purpose 26 isolates of B. cinerea were collected from different hosts in Varamin county greenhouses. All isolates identified and purified by single spore method and cultured on BSM medium. In order to determine the vegetative compatibility groups, all isolates were cultured on Vogel's basal medium amended with sodium seleanate (1-3 gr/lit). Selenate is a toxic substance for fungi and it is an analogue for sulfate in fungal metabolic pathway. Selenate-resistant mutants were isolated from all strains as spontaneous, fast- growing sectors arising from restricted colonies on medium amended with sodium selenate. Sectors were sulphate non-utilizing (sul) mutants if grew as thin expansive colonies with little or no aerial mycelium on MM (minimal media), but similarly to the wild-type on L-methionine- amended MM medium. MM amended with potassium chromate also used for partial phenotyping of sul mutants. Mutants that grew on MM amended with potassium chromate were chromate-resistant. Also mutants with inability for growing on this medium were indicated as chromat sensitive. In order to evaluation of vegetative compatibility groups (VCGs), chromate resistance and chromate sensitive mutants were paired in all possible combinations. All plates were monitored for formation of dense aerial mycelia (prototrophic growth pattern) at the contact zone of each two isolates up to 30 days. Isolates were assigned in the same vegetative compatibility group if represented prototrophic growth pattern along their contact zone. Among 26 isolates of B. cinerea, 15 VCGs were determined. No correlations were observed between VCGs with hosts and geographic origins of isolates.

The use of natural compounds for disease control and prevention has been considered because of the benefits. Using herbal essences has been developed due to having medicinal properties, antifungal, antibacterial and antioxidant secondary metabolites in the control of pathogens. In this study, the performance of three plant essential oils Cumin (Cuminum cyminum), cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) and peppermint (Mentha sp.) and soluble chitosan in the prevention and treatment of rice sheath blight caused by the fungus Rhizoctionia solani in vitro and in Ziveh, were studied. This experiment was done in a completely randomized design with 500 treatments and 3 replications. Treatments consisted of three factors essential oils, each in five different concentrations (100, 200, 400, 600, 800, 1000 ppm) and the Factor chitosan in two concentrations 800 and 1000 milligram per liter and also two control included a positive control (culture medium along with tilt PDA) and negative control (dextrose agar medium potatoes without oil). Each treatment consists of three replicates each also includes three petri dish (for all treatments and positive and negative controls), respectively. Inhibition of different concentrations was determined using the Abbott formula. The full minimum inhibitory concentration of essential oils (MIC) and minimum fungicidal concentration of essential oils (MFC) was also calculated. The factorial experiment was considered in a completely randomized design with three replications in which every essence as a factor and different concentrations of essential oils, different levels of each factor. The results showed that essential oils of cinnamon and cumin inhibited 100% of the growth of R. solani were in effect concentrations ppm 200. The essential oil and chitosan 100% inhibition at concentrations of 600 and 1000 were one of their own. In addition to these three extracts of cinnamon, cumin and mint with a percentage of inhibition, respectively, 67/81, 50/82 and 33/83 showed similar results, with 50% inhibition chitosan least inhibition of pathogenic fungi on plant show.

Thrity seven isolates of Magnaporthe grisea collected from several host plants from family of Poaceae namely Digitaria singuinalis, Setaria italica, and Echinochloa sp.were tested for their pathogenecity against two susceptible rice cultivars. Conidial suspensions were prepared by the surfaces of 14-day-old cultures being washed with sterile water and adjusting the final concentrations to approximately 5×104 conidia per ml with the aid of hematocytometer. Inoculums were applied to the leaves of 3 week-old plants and symptoms scrutinized 10 to 12 days following inoculation. Moreover, to confirm the outcomes of the test, the survey of the infection of the leaves was recapitulated after a 5 days interval. Pots each containing sixty seedlings of either Binam or Tarom rice cultivars were sprayed with 50 ml suspension of 5×104 conidia per ml from either pure cultures of the M. grisea or water, with a hand-held mist sprayer (until runoff) onto rice plants that were at a four-to-five-leaf stage. Inoculated plants were incubated in a humidity chamber and maintained at 100% relative humidity (RH) for 48 h and then reincubated in a greenhouse (20 to 24°C). Also negative and positive control plants were sprayed with distilled water and with rice infecting isolate respectively in the same manner. After 10 to 12 days past, leaf spot symptoms appeared on some inoculated plants. Then five virulent and semi virulent isolates as based upon their interaction with rice were analyzed for pathogenic races. In total 13 cultivars and lines (eight varieties differentiated through international standard cultivars and five through Near Isogenic Lines (NILS)) were examined. The last five isolates were classified in four pathogenic races IB-58, IA-27, IA-127, IA-17 that belonged to two race groups IA and IB as based on their virulence on eight international differential varieties, and in A, B, C, D as based on their virulence on five Near Isogenic Lines (NILS).

This study was conducted to identification of Fusarium spp. as casual agents of lentil wilt, damping off and root rot diseases and comparison of their pathogenicity in Fars province during growing seasons of 007-008. Lentil fields with yellowing and wilting symptoms were visited and samples were collected from which totally 6 isolates of Fusarium spp. were obtained. Isolates then were identified and accomodated in five species of Fusarium oxysporum, F. solani, F. equiseti, F. avenaceum and F. sambucinum with 6.7,, 8., and. percent frequencies, respectively. This was the first report of F. avenaceum in lentil fields of Iran. Pathogenicity test was conducted and disease severity were rated according to the scale proposed for Fusarium diseases of lentil. The results indicated that F. oxysporum was the most important pathogenic species in the lentil farms of Fars province.