farangis abbaszadeh

The use of language and its elements is one of the appropriate tools in describing and detecting crime in the courts (Aghagolzadeh, 2012, 2013). The present study aimed at discovering the discoursal patterns (i.e., descriptive, descriptive and statistical) and their sub-categories (i.e., standard norm of speech, changing in the standard norm, and deviation from the standard norms of language proposed by McMenamin (2002). The purpose of this study is to identify the types of these deviations in the criminal courts. In legal communication, the judges use fewer deviations because they not only felt that they belonged to a higher social class (Coulthard, Johnson & Wright, 2017) but they also displayed their administrative power coming from their legal status (Fairclough, 1992). McMenamin notes if the accused persons belonged to the lower class of society, they could not use the standard norms of language and was drawn to deviations in the descriptive, descriptive and statistical norms of language. In this type of discourse, the personality and identity of the judges' speech may be affected by social and political power of the courts. Thus, court language as a specific register may affect the judges' conversations that can be alien to the criminal persons and accused ones. Therefore, the research question addresses the significant difference between the judges and defendants following the McMenamin's framework in using standard speech or changing and deviations from the norms of discourse in the criminal courts.

The present study examines the impact of the usage of the principles of Grice’s (1975) cooperative principles of Quality, Quantity, Relevance, and Manner in legal discourse based on the observance of such rules and principles of conversation in defense sessions of ISIS defendants attacking the Islamic Consultative Assembly and Imam Khomeini Holy Shrine. Data of the present descriptive-qualitative study was collected from fifty 10-minute video files from the 20:30 TV program and Aparat Web site in various defense sessions of the defendants of attacking the Islamic Consultative Assembly and the Holy Shrine of Imam Khomeini. Findings showed that Gricean maxims were violated in terms of Quantity but the court interlocutors followed Relevance maxim in the court exchanges. The lowest frequency was observed in the Quality maxim since the speakers avoid appropriate and true conversations in the court. Results also revealed that defendants violated all the maxims compared with judges and martyrs' families.

This study investigated the linguistic norms in forensic discourse of judge-defendant in criminal courts of the Islamic Republic of Iran and focused on the frequency and the percentage of verbal deviations in the judge and the accused person. The research tool was McMennamin’s (2002) linguistic model concerning the linguistic prescriptive, and descriptive deviations from the linguistic norms. Data were collected through observing fifty 10-minute video clips of Karbaschi’s defendants as the former mayor in Tehran. The data were analyzed statistically through descriptive statistics. Findings were divided into three categories of verbal norms: standard, change and deviation. The findings indicated indicated that usage of words through non-standard language have a vital role in representing the defendant's social status While the judge followed standard norms, Karbaschi changed and deviated from the norms more significantly than the judge did. Findings of the study suggest that forensic discourse implicitly depicts hierarchical level, superordinate and subordinate’s structures within the linguistic community. Social distance determines the formality of situational context while power and solidarity affect people’s interactional communications. Thus, the analysis of judges and accused persons' speeches can lead to identifying the linguistic norms which are correlated to their use of discourse.in the court specifies their individual, social, and forensic status.

This study investigated the changes and deviations from linguistic and stylistic patterns of forensic discourse in Revolution Courts of the Islamic Republic of Iran. The research problem focused on the frequency and the percentage of verbal deviations in judges’ and the defendants' speech. The research tool was McMenamin’s (2002) linguistic and stylistic framework concerning the standard, prescriptive, and descriptive norms and the deviations from these norms in both judges’ and defendants’ speech. Data were collected through observing 45 court sessions among them 15 sessions were randomly selected based on systematic sampling method. The data were analyzed statistically through descriptive statistics. Data were divided into three categories of verbal norms: standard speech, changes of standard speech, and deviations from the norms. Findings indicated that using the standard and non-standard words have vital role in the defendants' speech. While the judges followed standard norms, the defendants changed or deviated from the norms more significantly than the judges did. The findings of the study suggest that analyzing court speeches can lead to the study of judges and defendants' linguistic and stylistic patterns correlated to their use of discourse. 

Verbal and stylistic markers regulate interpersonal relationships (Hargie & Dickson, 2004)and the majority of members within the society adhere to it. According to McMenamin (2002), the patterns of discourse in the court are categorized into three linguistic and stylistic markers including prescriptive, descriptive and statistical norms. These indicators may be violated or performed by judges and defendants in Revolution Courts in Iran. For example, the sentence lotfan haqiqat ra be dâdgâ begin. 'Please, tell the truth to the court' is considered as standard norm in terms of prescriptive speech style. With respect statistical patterns in the court, up to 85 or 90 percent of speech frequency can be observed in the judges' speech. If the sentence haqiqat râ begin.'tell the truth!' is changed or deviated from benâl 'confess!' from the standard norm, it can be assumed that two categories from the standard pattern. If the sentence is changed, the style is informally descriptive. In the sentence, "He beating Mary." the speaker may violate linguistic markers and deviate from the standard norm of "He is beating Mary." The use of "He's beating Mary" could be the change in the standard norm. Deviation from discourse norms is considered prescriptively because it is ungrammatical in the court environment. On the other hand, it is odd the judge says the violated word or sentence with a low percentage (below 5%). The effect of stylistic markers on the observance of verbal norms and deviation from these rules and principles is the goal of this study. The present research also intends to examine judges’ and defendants’ discourse regarding observing, changing or deviating from prescriptive, descriptive and statistical norms. Comparing the frequency of these changes and deviations (Momeni, 2010) can show the practical nature of discourse in Iranian Revolution Courts (Biabani & Hadianfar, 2005). 

The aim of this study is to investigate judges’ and defendants’ linguistic and stylistic markers with regard to changing or deviating from speech norms in the Islamic Revolution Courts following McMenamin’s (2002) approach. He introduces three verbal patterns including prescriptive, descriptive and statistical norms in terms of standard, variation (i.e., changing) or deviation (i.e., ungrammaticality) and their sub-categories. For example, the phrase "Water am drinking." is considered as a standard variation in terms of observing prescriptive norm. But the statement,” Water I'm drinking. "can be a change in the norm; however, it is understandable. If the sentence is not comprehensible linguistically (e.g., drink my water), it is reagrded as the violation in the speech norms.   

The reasrerch design of the present study is based on descriptive method and the corpus was 45 sessions in Revolution Courts. The video files were randomly selected among the pool of data that were broadcasted on TV or on the Internet. Two experts in linguistics for the sake of reliability and validity indices prescribed recorded videos. These trials included the outstanding court sessiosns that are recently performed in Iran. They are the trial of Akbar Tabari (former executive deputy of the Judiciary for receiving bribes), Fazel Khodadad (economic acusation and the embezzler of 123 billion Tomans), Babak Zanjani (embezzlement), Gholamhossein Karbaschi (the former mayor of Tehran accused for embezzlement), etc. For validity of identifying and analyzing the types of discourse patterns and verbal and stylistic markers in judges’ and defendants’ conversations, two linguists matched the sentences with a video file with 95% validity. There was an agreement on how to implement and identify linguistic and stylistic markers in judges’ and defendants' speech. Finally, 2230 sentences of the judges and 2270 sentences of the defendants were analyzed. Descriptive and inferential statistics including means, percentage, frequency, and independent samples t-test were implemented. 

Findings revealed the judges observed descriptive norms more than the defendants concerned with the prescriptive norms. Results indicated that the judges used more socially accepted descriptive patterns.Defendants tried to maintain their social status by using standard language or close to it. The judges frequently asked the defendants through standard linguistic and stylistic norms but the defendants violated or changed the standard norms. For instance, the judge asked, čerâ ân âqâ be šomâ yek âpârtmânčand milyuni dâd? ‘Why did that person give you a multi-billion apartment?’ Mr. Tabari as the defendant replies; čon man ro dus dâšt.  šomâ dus nadârid?  ‘Because this gentleman loved me. Don’t you like it?’ This can be regarded as the deviation in stylistic norms in terms of power because the defendants thought he was in a position to ask questions in the court. He did not follow the standard speech and continued,če bâyad manbekonam? in barâ dostiye. ‘What should I do? That’s due to Friendship.’ The defendants' speech was full of deviations in descriptive norms. Here, Tabari compared himself with the judge and stated that he had friends who could give him the whole Lavasan property as a gift. This power is completely diminished in front of the judge when the judge did not say anything, made a sarcastic smile and only said čerâ? ‘why?’ which indicated the deviation from the standard norm in prescriptive pattern. This can be seen in the words of most of the defendants who believe that they can justify themselves with money, bribes, and so on.   

The results showed that the use of linguistic and stylistic markers play a decisive role in judges’ and defendants’ individual and social status. Considering power in legal discourse, we studied different dimensions of standard, changes and deviations from the speech norms among the judges and defendants. Members of a social group can expand their ideas and cultural heritage through communication and attempt to preserve it. The defendants used more changed and violated instances than the judges did. Further research is needed to uncover the changes and violations from the lawyers' speech or interrogators in the courts. Implications of the study for forensic researchers and the students of law could be beneficial. Training centers for judges and lawyers can use linguistic and stylistic markers affecting their speech in Revolution Courts.  

The existence of three historical, comparative and interdisciplinary features in modern linguistics accelerates its development, change and evolution. Language conveys the informational role and content structure of each word. The role of communication dependence Sentences that are identified according to their discourse role and contextual effects are essential for understanding the message. The purpose of the present study is to investigate the informational and thematic construction of several verses of the Holy Quran following the systematic theory of Halliday (1994) which has been done in a descriptive-analytical method using trustable sources (Holy Quran) to study the effect of structural and semantic coherence of Quranic verses. The results indicate that the change in the conceptual and semantic aspect of the structure depends on the information construction of the discourse and its communication elements, which is reinforced by changing the type of possible structure; and these changes take the right shape with linguistic and stylistic tools.

Language is a cultural reality and the product of human thought, which is associated with creativity and innovation. The creativity and creation of human language causes the combination of sounds and meanings in the form of complex linguistic constructions in literary creations, and its actualization in the process of socialization and culture-building will bring literary creativity. Using linguistic constructions, the poet imagines the past, present, future and moves from reality to fantasy at any time and place. In the present study, we examine the syntactic, lexical and temporal deviation in Parvin Etesami's pieces, Masnavi and poems, whose poetry is a symbol of the Iraqi and Khorasani style. The results of the research indicate that he has been gotten away from the syntactic norms of conventional and standard language. The order of the words, the grammatical changes are in harmony according to the principles, structure and style of the language.

The effect of court speech can be affected by using verbal and non-verbal cues. Verbal acts transfer their linguistic contents of necessary language use and nonlinguistic components such as body movements. This study aims at investigating the effect of on lexical and phrasal use in people’s forensic discourses in civil courts following Safavi’s (2011) categorization model of lexical conceptual relations. Every word, phrase, clause, a sentence has a meaning which can be transferred by linguistic and nonlinguistic elements. Linguistic components of meaning are concerned with lexicons and syntax. The research data gathered from two video clips of getting divorces by agreement in order to study lexical collocation, combination, deviation, inflection, and semantic relations at the word and sentence level. The results indicated that identifying the linguistic and correct use of lexical structures and grammatical patterns cause interactional communications positively and efficiently. People are not often aware of linguistic elements in their defenses of the courts. The results showed that linguistic norm deviations are affected by the selection of lexemes. In the courts, the judge and attorney should pay much attention to maintaining and deviating the speech values from forensic perspectives.

The recognition of linguistic and metalinguistic contexts have been considered in the study of the Holy Quran for understanding the concepts of lexicon and texts. The Holy Quran is a rich source of literary devices and ethical idioms in terms of linguistics. In the present study, Meyer and Quirk et al's theoretical approaches were used in order to analyze syntactic, semantic and pragmatic functions of appositions. Both approaches were used to analyze the structures of appositions. The results of the analysis made a classification of various kinds of appositions in the Holy Quran. These types of appositions can give semantic information to the readers as a literary device which connects the coherence between the dependent and subordinate clauses in the verses of the Holy Quran. The function of appositions in the sentences is to give linguistic and semantic meanings which can give elaborative information to the readers. The findings of the present study showed that the functions of appositions in the Holy Quran can make a relationship between syntactic and semantic structures and results in pragmatic functions of those appositions. These pragmatic functions are representatives, expressives, commissives and directives which are used in verses concerning the God's emphasis on giving advice, alarming, awakening the believers and threatening the unbelievers regarding the Day of Resurrection.

The goal of the present article is to study the syntactic and stylistic, innovation and literary depiction of Forugh Farrokhzad and Ahmad Shamloo. Foroogh is one of the most capable Iranian contemporary poets. Her poetry is made of humanistic emotions and thoughts – it contains figures of speech in lexicon and content both. The concepts of her poetries are based on her emotions and personal experiences. Shamloo's braveness is admirable in breaking the norms of Persian Language. The more distance between the terms and words the more literary the works. Shamloo's serious reaction to the political situation of his era has started from his youth and forms his thinking structure which reflects in his works and contexts. His writing style is full of literary figures.

Language is a reflection of individual and social characteristics which guarantees the evolutionary process of human in all periods. It is an instrument for reciprocal social act represents speech and written. Culture is a fundamental system of conventions with cognitive domain, behavioral norms and ideological properties which shape social identity. The present study aims at investigating the linguistic functions and decoding of grammatical structures. This research was conducted descriptively studying passive structure formally and semantically and the intercultural communications and the role of translation as the main device of interaction. The results indicated that through linguistic ideologies, discourse and grammatical structures can be comprehended in spite of cultural and structural differences between the source and the target languages. In translation, paying attention to formal, semantic, and stylistic aspects of the language is important. Analyzing the text due to the abstractness of the semantic component is more complicated than other levels. Each level has its own complexities in which vagueness may be appeared. If dealing with such issues done wisely and consciously, the degree of vagueness in the next level will be decreased. As a result, different linguistic levels should continuously b taken into account.

Simin Behbehani is one of the poetesses who had used the formalist's ideas and views in modern versing and employed a lot of linguistic deviations in her lyrics as the raw material of poem art. She used deviations and foregrounding to convey her romantic and spiritual feelings and ideological, cultural, and religious views. The required data gathered from library to investigate the creativityælinguistic deviations, and figures of speech. The method employed was descriptive and analytic. The results indicate that the Iranian lady employed phonological and semantic deviations more than other types which make her more brilliant than other poets with respect to foregrounding and stylistic art.