فهرست مطالب fatemeh akhlaghi yazdi nejad

Background &

Learning disability is one of the important constructs in exceptional education. One of the goals of educational systems is to raise the level of students' ability to increase the academic efficiency of learners. According to the Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, a learning disability has been renamed to a specific learning disability, and reading disorder, writing disorder, and math disorder, each of which was once a distinct and independent disorder, are now considered to specify a specific learning disorder. A neurodevelopmental disorder in children that is caused by genetic and environmental factors and affects brain function in the areas of understanding and processing verbal and non-verbal information; in a way that lasts at least 6 months. This disorder leads to problems in learning and using academic skills in the form of carelessness, poor comprehension, slow reading, difficulty in spelling, problems in written expression, problems in mastering the meaning of numbers or calculations, and problems in mathematical reasoning. These problems are not related to mental retardation, developmental delay, uncorrected vision or hearing problems, or motor or neurological disorders, they are specifically meant in this way. In the education and treatment of learning disorders, one of the most important methods introduced is the sensory integration method. Sensory integration refers to processes whose information enters the brain through the eyes, ears, mouth, nose, skin, muscles, joints, and sense of balance. Ayres presented a theory called sensory integration to relate behavior and neural function, especially sensory information, which examines the specific connections of neural function, sensorimotor behavior, and academic learning in a hypothetical framework, and aims to find specific patterns of dysfunction. In children with learning and sensory problems special treatment methods for these groups. The method of sensory integration is a neurological flow that receives and organizes sensory information from the body and the environment of a person and uses it to function more effectively and better in the environment. This method leads to the improvement of excellent brain functions and the abstract levels of the brain from which mathematics is applied; it increases and thus improves the educational efficiency of these students. This intervention engages the child's senses with exercises in the form of a game, and this situation helps coordination and precision in the functioning of the child's senses. Agent concentration is important in maintaining integrity and improving learning performance, so it can play an effective role in improving reading and writing disorders. The basic assumption of this educational method is that children with learning disorders have problems in these sensory pathways. Much research has been conducted and its effectiveness has been confirmed regarding the effectiveness of this educational method in children with learning disabilities. Learning disorder affects brain function in the areas of understanding and processing verbal and non-verbal information; therefore, it is important to identify decisive intervention methods in this field. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of the central nervous system reorganization method on explicit and implicit memory, mental retention ability, and visual-spatial skills of students with special learning disabilities.

The statistical population of this research included all students with specific learning disabilities who referred to the learning disabilities centers of Rafsanjan city in the academic year of 2019-2020, 90 of whom were selected randomly in three groups of sensory integration using the purposeful sampling method. , reorganization of the central nervous system, and the control group were replaced. Research tools included Bogard and Roos's (1991) mental fluid retention task, Snodgrass and Vanderwaart's (1980) manifest and latent memory questionnaire, and Kornoldi's (1998) visual-spatial memory test. Data analysis was done using repeated measurement with mixed design and multivariate analysis of variance using SPSS-24 software.

The Results showed that the effect of the group in the component of mental maintenance (p < 0.01 and F = 70.99), explicit memory (p < 0.01 and F = 293.26 (162 and 2)), hidden memory (p < 0.01 and F = (162, 2) 65.17) and visual-spatial skills of children are significant, so there is an obvious difference between mental retention, overt and hidden memory, and visual-spatial skills. There are three groups and between the effectiveness of educational methods considering learning disorders. Also, sensory integration training has been effective in increasing mental retention, explicit and implicit memory, and visual-spatial skills of students with specific learning disorders. On the other hand, the difference between the two groups of sensory integration and the nerve reorganization method showed that the effects of the sensory integration group on increasing mental retention, explicit and implicit memory, and visual-spatial skills of students are more than the central nervous reorganization group.

It was concluded that the methods of sensory integration and reorganization of nerves are effective in increasing mental retention, explicit and implicit memory, and visuospatial skills of students with specific learning disorders, and this effectiveness in the training of the sensory integration group compared to Reorganization of the nerves in the ability to maintain a higher and greater mental capacity.

Background &

Learning disorder is a neurodevelopmental disorder in children that occurs due to genetic and environmental factors and affects brain function in the areas of understanding and processing verbal and non-verbal information; therefore, it is important to identify decisive intervention methods in this field. Learning disability is one of the most controversial topics of exceptional education. One of the goals of educational systems is to raise the level of students' ability to increase the academic efficiency of learners. According to the Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, a learning disability has been renamed to a specific learning disability, and reading disorder, writing disorder, and math disorder, each of which was once a distinct and independent disorder, are now considered to specify a specific learning disorder. A neurodevelopmental disorder in children that is caused by genetic and environmental factors and affects brain function in the areas of understanding and processing verbal and non-verbal information; in a way that lasts at least 6 months. This disorder leads to problems in learning and using academic skills in the form of carelessness, poor comprehension, slow reading, difficulty in spelling, problems in written expression, problems in mastering the meaning of numbers or calculations, and problems in mathematical reasoning. These problems are not related to mental retardation, developmental delay, uncorrected vision or hearing problems, or movement or neurological disorders, they are specifically meant in this way. In the education and treatment of learning disorders, one of the most important methods introduced is the sensory integration method. Sensory integration refers to processes whose information enters the brain through the eyes, ears, mouth, nose, skin, muscles, joints, and sense of balance. Ayres presented a theory called sensory integration to relate behavior and neural function, especially sensory information, which examines the specific connections of neural function, sensorimotor behavior, and academic learning in a hypothetical framework, and aims to find specific patterns of dysfunction in Children with learning and sensory problems and special treatment methods for these groups. The method of sensory integration is a neurological flow that receives and organizes sensory information from the body and the environment of a person and uses it for more effective and better functioning in the environment. This method leads to the improvement of excellent brain functions and the abstract levels of the brain from which mathematics is applied; increasing and thus improving the educational efficiency of this student. This intervention engages the child's senses with exercises in the form of a game, and this situation helps coordination and precision in the functioning of the child's senses. Agent concentration is important in maintaining integrity and improving learning performance, so it can play an effective role in improving reading and writing disorders. The basic premise of this educational method is that children with learning disorders have problems in these sensory pathways. Much research has been done on the effectiveness of this educational method in children with learning disabilities and its effectiveness has been confirmed. The purpose of this study was to compare the effectiveness of the sensory integration method and the central nervous system reorganization method on the explicit and implicit memory of students with specific learning disabilities.

The present study was a pre-test-post-test experiment with a control group and a follow-up period in terms of its practical purpose and design. The statistical population of the research included all students with specific learning disorders (reading/writing, math, and mixed disorders) who were referred to educational and clinical centers in Rafsanjan city in the academic year of 2020-2021, 90 of them were selected using the purposeful sampling method. Completely randomly, they were replaced in three experimental groups of 30 people, including the sensory integration group, the central nervous reorganization experimental group, and the control group. The research tools included the mental fluid maintenance task of Bogard and Rus (1991) and experimental groups of sensory integration training protocol (for 12 sessions and 90 minutes each session) and central nervous system reorganization protocol (for 8 sessions of 90 minutes each session). Data analysis was also done using repeated measurement with mixed design and multivariate analysis of variance using SPSS-24 software.

The Results showed that the effect of the group (control, sensory integration, and reorganization of the central nerves) was significant in the component of mental maintenance (p<0.01 and F=70.99). Also, the effect of disorder (reading/writing, math, and mixed) in mental maintenance (p>0.05 and F = 0.716) is not significant, so there is no significant difference between the scores of the groups according to learning disorders. Also, in the between-case factor of the interaction of the group and disorders (reading/writing, math, and mixed), the mental maintenance component (p<0.05 and F=2.85) is significant, and there is a significant difference between the effectiveness of educational methods considering learning disorders. The way that effects of the sensory integration group on the students' mental maintenance ability were more than the central nervous system reorganization group.

The present study, like other studies, had limitations, including the uncontrollability of some important psychological factors, such as emotional characteristics and personality traits, along with the biological-neurological foundations involved in specific learning disorders. Considering that the research was carried out in a learning disorder center, generalizing the results to wider groups and different educational levels should be done with caution. Also, the specificity of the research sample only to students with learning disorders in Rafsanjan city limits the generalization of the results to other groups and cultures. Therefore, it is suggested that similar research should be evaluated for other students with special needs with wider samples, students in different educational levels, and different cities and cultures. On the one hand, it is suggested that clinical, educational, and exceptional specialists in the fields of occupational therapy, learning promotion, educational counseling, guidance centers, learning disorders centers, school health centers, and educators use the results of this study to help children with learning disabilities. Based on these findings, it can be concluded that the methods of sensory integration and nerve reorganization are effective in increasing the mental retention of students with specific learning disorders, and this effectiveness in the training of the sensory integration group is more than nerve reorganization. It is higher and more in the ability to keep the mind. Therefore, it is suggested that clinical, educational, and exceptional specialists use the method of integrated sensory interventions and nerve reorganization for students in different educational levels and cultures with learning disabilities.

Background &

Obsessive-compulsive disorder according to the DSM-5 concept has a separate category that includes repeated and permanent thoughts, desires, or mental images. This disorder forces a person to repeat behaviors or repeated mental actions in response to a session, which causes helplessness and disrupts his daily performance. ObObsessive-compulsive disorder is considered a cognitive processing disorder; In such a way that any type of cognitive belief is significantly and positively related to obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Due to the correlation of cognitive models in obsessive-compulsive disorder, researchers identified three different levels in the cognitive models of obsessive-compulsive disorder and named them under the headings of disturbing thoughts, evaluations, and assumptions. These levels of cognition and meaning-making are in linear interaction with each other and influence each other. InCognitiveimensions, in general, and areas of certain beliefs, in particular, can be considered cognitive characteristics of obsessive-compulsive disorder patients. The cognitive model in this disorder believes that people with OCD interpret their thoughts, images, and impulses as very important and meaningful, and ineffective beliefs are the basis for the formation of these thoughts, images, and impulses. It seems that certain dysfunctional beliefs such as control and importance of thoughts, sense of responsibility and evaluation, sense of danger and threat, perfectionism, and uncertainty play a role in the formation of this disorder. In such a way that the primary ineffective evaluation in connection with the disturbing thoughts and the type of look and analysis of the person's disturbing thoughts leads to the secondary ineffective evaluation or ineffective coping. McFall and Wollersheim (1979) identified the cognitive dimensions of obsession in the area of ​​individual capability and ability, certainty and certainty, and the need to avoid criticism, and on the other hand, Warren and Guides (1979) identified obsessive patients in terms of the intensity of their beliefs in the field of perfectionism. They know certainty and non-acceptance of certain types of thoughts and impulses. All these beliefs are formed in response to and in response to disturbing thoughts and increasing excessive attention to disturbing thoughts; In a way that in a comprehensive review and according to the view of the Obsessive-Compulsive Cognitions Working Group, there are three dysfunctional cognitive aspects in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, which include: responsibility/threat overestimation, importance and control of thoughts, and perfectionism/certainty. The cognitive belief of responsibility/threat assessment includes the misunderstanding of the probability and severity of harm or other negative consequences, as well as the individual's sense of responsibility against their occurrence. According to the cognitive belief about the importance and control of thoughts, people suffering from obsessions have the experience that having obsessive thoughts is a sign of their importance and control of these thoughts is possible and necessary. Responsibility is one of the basic components in the cognitive profile of the experiences of obsessive-compulsive people, which of course has been emphasized in the research literature, in a way that Taylor and Purdon proposed in a study that with increasing responsibility The adaptability of the person becomes self-perpetuating. On the other hand, it seems that people suffering from obsessions focus on their sense of certainty and do not have confidence in their memory, so patients with this symptom have an extreme sense of responsibility and suffer from a very disgusting and unbearable doubt. Therefore, they perform ritual behaviors compulsorily to gain certainty and reduce the sense of responsibility for the damage. Obsessive compulsive disorder is a very common and chronic disease associated with significant global disability. While there are many quantitative studies that examine the clinical characteristics and treatment methods of OCD, qualitative research that examines the lived experience of people with OCD is limited. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to study the cognitive experience in people with obsessive-compulsive disorder; It was a qualitative research with an emphasis on gender.

The study method was a qualitative and phenomenological research. The statistical population of the research included all people referring to the clinics and counseling centers of Rafsanjan city. By using the purposeful sampling method, the referring people who were diagnosed with obsessive-compulsive disorder based on clinical psychology interview, psychiatrist and DSM-5 diagnostic semi-structured clinical interview, were invited to the research as participants, using the descriptive phenomenological research method. Answer the question of what are the most important cognitive elements and components in their lived experiences. For this purpose, 12 people (6 men and 6 women) diagnosed with OCD disorder and aged 18-50 were interviewed from among the clients referred to the centers until the saturation of information was reached. Data analysis After recording and transcribing the interviews, coding concepts were extracted and reported using the Claysey method of main and secondary themes.

What was determined from the extracted codes from the interview was the biocognitive experience in people with obsessive-compulsive disorder, which was based on 6 main themes and 54 sub-themes. The main themes were obtained in the form of individual, social, economic, cultural, emotional and operational consequences. Also, sub-themes extracted from these main themes based on the biological experiences of people, including lack of mental efficiency and extreme work of the mind, extreme responsibility, strict adherence to rules, academic perfectionism, compulsion to do tasks repeatedly, giving additional explanations in all tasks, He was sensitive to heartache and anxiety, the feeling of being annoyed when not doing things, extreme hatred of people, feeling of distrust, feeling of loneliness, control of thoughts, etc. On the one hand, according to gender segregation in the presented lived experiences, it was found that women had more frequency and intensity than men in the main and secondary themes presented.

The results of the present study, while extracting and explaining lived experiences based on cognitive processes in people with OCD disorder, provided additional evidence in defense of the interpretative role of the informational element of cognition in predicting the tendency to this disorder. In such a way that by improving the cognitive processes and components of people with OCD disorder, the cognitive tendency of these people towards all kinds of obsessions can be managed. Therefore, obsessions continue as long as these misinterpretations and cognitive deviations exist. In fact, the cognitive interpretation of people with OCD is such that those thoughts form the basis of the tendency to perform compulsive actions in order to neutralize the anxiety caused by these thoughts and cognitive processes. Therefore, it is necessary for therapists and specialists in this field to pay attention to these lived experiences in cognitive dimensions and to determine their treatment strategies, especially for women with this disorder.

Learning is the most basic process by which an apprentice becomes a master with cognitive skills and thinking power. Some people face problems in the normal routine of teaching and learning. Some of these people are students with special learning disabilities that are classified as neurodevelopmental disorders. According to DSM–5, specific learning disorder is accompanied by deficits in reading, writing, and mathematics. Considering this topic's importance, it seems necessary to use methods to help solve these children's problems. Regarding the education and treatment of learning disorders, one of the most important methods is the sensory integration method. Sensory integration refers to processes whose information enters the brain through the eyes, ears, mouth, nose, skin, muscles, joints, and sense of balance. The method of reorganizing the central nerves, based on movement therapy and neuromuscular retraining programs, tries to use and consolidate the previously unacquired movement patterns from the lower parts of the brain. The present study compared the effectiveness of the sensory integration and central nervous system reorganization methods on the visual–spatial skills of students with specific learning disabilities.

This quasi–experimental research employed a pretest–posttest and a follow–up design with a control group. The statistical population of this research included all students with specific learning disabilities (reading/writing, math, and mixed disabilities) who were referred to educational and clinical centers in Rafsanjan City, Iran, in the 2020–2021 academic year. Of them, 90 qualified volunteers (30 with reading/writing disabilities, 30 people with mathematics disabilities, and 30 people with mixed disabilities) were included in the study using available and targeted sampling methods. Then, they were randomly assigned to three groups: sensory integration, central nervous reorganization experimental, and control. The inclusion criteria were as follows: having a learning disability, being 13 to 15 years old, showing normal intelligence, lacking problems like hyperactivity, and not having special mental or physical problems. The exclusion criteria were as follows: absence of more than one session, non–cooperation of the child or family, hyperactivity of the child, and not tolerating the study conditions. The first experimental group received the sensory integration training program in 12 ninety–minute sessions using the Ayres (1972) theoretical and therapeutic principles of sensorimotor integration. The second experimental group received the central nervous system reorganization training program in 8 ninety–minute sessions using the theoretical and therapeutic bases of Delacato (1992). No intervention was provided to the control group during this period. The research data was collected using the visual–spatial memory test of Cornoldi (1998). Data were analyzed using repeated measurement with mixed design and multivariate analysis of variance at a significance level of 0.05 using SPSS software version 24.

There was a significant difference between the experimental group of sensory integration and the control group in the visual–spatial skills of children with learning disabilities (p<0.001), as well as between the central nervous system reorganization group and the control group in the visual–spatial skills of children with learning disabilities. There was a significant difference in learning (p<0.001), but no significant difference was observed between the two groups of sensory integration and reorganization of central nerves in visual–spatial skills in the general state. Also, in the sensory integration and central nervous system reorganization groups, there was a significant difference between the pretest and posttest scores and between the pretest and follow–up scores in terms of visual–spatial skills scores (p<0.001). However, there was no significant difference between the posttest and follow–up scores in the sensory integration and central nervous system reorganization groups, indicating that the interventions of sensory integration and reorganization of the central nerves continued in the follow–up phase. Also, the effect of the disorder and its interaction with group and time was not significant, and the results showed no difference between the experimental groups in the three categories of disorders (reading/writing, math, and mixed).

Based on the findings of the research and considering the follow–up tests, it was concluded that the sensory integration and reorganization of the central nervous system reorganization methods had the same effect on the visual–spatial skills of children with learning disabilities. Both methods in this research equally increased the visual–spatial skills of children with a learning disorder.