hassan karimian

The institutions of religion and state had a deep connection during the Sasanian period. Fire temples played an important role in national unity with governmental support throughout Iran, aiding the central government by conducting religious ceremonies. Fire altars, as part of the Sasanian fire temples, were essential for worship and one of the most important tools of worship in Zoroastrianism, serving as the place and throne of the great god; therefore, they are considered among the most sacred parts of fire temples. Sasanian fire altars varied in shape and material, serving different purposes. Most Sasanian fire altars were made of stone or gypsum, with a few cases made of clay. Some fire altars were cone-shaped with spoon or simple designs. An interesting point to note is that in the province of Fars (including the present-day provinces of Fars and Bushehr, and parts of the neighboring areas) during the Sasanian period, all discovered fire altars were made of stone. Except for a few cases possibly dedicated to Azar-Bahram, all the other discovered fire temples had gypsum fire altars. With this description, there may be a specific meaning hidden in the choice of fire altar material during the Sasanian period. The question raised here is about the geographical location of fire temples in relation to the material of fire altars whether a clear connection could be established between the Sasanian-Period Fars and the construction materials of fire altars or not. This fundamental research was conducted by examining field data, archaeological studies, accidental discoveries from various locations, and utilizing library information. Additionally, one of the known types of fire altars, in the form of a curtain, is depicted on some Sasanian coins. Ultimately, it seems that since Fars was the seat of the Sasanian Empire, they displayed fire on stone fire altars.

While the Qajar era was in a recent past, little independent research has been done concerning the architecture and urban engineering of the first half of this era (1795 – 1847). The main reason behind such negligence might be that this period of Iranian architecture occurs between the golden age of architecture in Safavid Iran and the modern period in which Western architectural models infiltrated Iranian architecture and urban construction. In the present research, the aim is to identify the process of constructing architectural works and urban renovation in the first half of the Qajar period by drawing on historical evidence, written sources, and on top of that, archeological evidence. To do so, it is necessary to identify the factors that contributed to strategic policies of Qajar rulers vis-à-vis urban developments and renovations. Given that details of many civil constructions of the Qajar period are not available, this paper rests upon the assumption that archeological studies might be effectively drawn on to know the national strategy of these rulers in the development of cities. The research finds that factors, such as giving legitimacy to the Qajar government, attracting and seeking support of clergy and religious scholars, as well as attempts to achieve economic and civil development of the country for purposes of promoting the political power, played major parts in civil constructions by the Qajar dynasty. Other factors include military and defense policies, the question of succession and rivalries among senior Qajar princes, archaism of Qajar rulers, and their religious beliefs.

This article examines the structure and function of water mills in Horaman mountain region. Water mills are a technical structure that is the result of indigenous knowledge and a smart method from the ancestors in creating a balance between the needs and demands of human societies with the actual and potential facilities available in different environments with different geographical conditions. Due to its connection with livelihood, nutrition and gathering of food (bread is the most important food) by people in the past periods, mills and miller are considering a part of social history studies. Therefore, by researching in these issues, one can get to know the important role and function of water mills in the cultural, social and economic fields of past societies. The purpose of this research is to investigate and recognize water mills as a part of the material culture left over from the Qajar and Pahlavi eras to finally answer this question: What role did Horaman mills play in the continuity and biological evolution of the region, in terms of socio-economic structure during the Qajar and Pahlavi periods? The method of this research is descriptive and analytical, and it uses field studies, travelogues, oral history in the form of interviews with local researchers and people who have been in charge of miller jobs for generations. The results of the research show that Horaman water mills, despite being established in a mountainous and inaccessible region, have always played a role in the social and economic life of the region in addition to their main function of flouring grains for baking bread;  and by this means, it has provided the connection between the plains and the mountains, and in a way, it has provided a unique role in shaping and regulating the social relations of the communities inside and outside the region. In the end, Horaman water mills were not just a tool for grain flour, but widely has helped for the socio-economic fabric of Horaman communities, which did not have proper agriculture due to the lack of land in the mountainous region.

Ghandijan is an archaic city from Sassanian era to the early Islamic period.Its remains are located in an area of approximately 600 hectares near a village called Sarmashhad in Dadin district in the southwestern part of Fars province. The ruins of this prestigious ancient city which are identified in the authors' investigation, includes Tell Khandaq, Bahram Caravanserai, Qizqala, Tell Naqarakhane and the single arched building, which are scattered in different parts of the city.Despite the importance of this ancient site and the wide range of cultural materials in its area, comprehensive and detailed studies have not been carried out regarding the shape and function as well as the spatial organization of this city.In this research, an attempt has been made to investigate the reason of Ghandijan formation in the Sassanid era and also its importance in the Islamic era. Also, questions about the characteristics of industries and productions, the state of ancient communication routes, the antiquity and use of ancient artifacts of this city must be answered.The analysis of the temporal and spatial distribution of movable data in determining its antiquity, made it clear that the life of this city continued in the Islamic era from the era of the Rashidin Caliphs to the Khwarezmshahs and Atabakans of Fars.The old name of the city probably was “Kandigān” but another hypothesis is “Pandegān”. The early Islamic historians mentioned the name of Ghandejan as a city in Fars state. The context of the city located in the south of Iranian plateau near the coast of Persian Gulf. Sassanid cities were founded on specific styles. Firuzabad was the first City that was built by Sassanian kings in 224 C.E as The first capital of empire. Firuzabad is in rounded shape with regular and symmetrical circle and central core that consist a brick watch tower. The other style based on the ancient Roman cities modeling, The Hippodamus city planning. In Hippodamus style, city was built with four gates rectangular shape and two crossroads(Decumanus maximus, Cardo maximus). Inside the south west of Fars plain near the ruins of ancient city of Sarmashhad rounded moat remains from pre- Islamic period just like the Sassanid city style. The archaeological remains of Sarmashhad present an immigration in early Islamic period. The reason of abondanment is not clarified yet. The reason of Fundament of Ghandijan was spatial situation and connection link of the plain between Bishapur, Darabgerd and Firuzabad to The Persian Gulf. The old roads of Ghandijan has shown the importance of tradeway to Sirāf port in coastline of the Persian Gulf. Sherds of pottery remained on surface of hills in plain. Analysis of pottery style and radiocarbon dating and petrography can represent chronology of the city. In our current studies, we consider all parts of archaeological evidence on the field. Sherds of potteries, mounds, architectural remains and satelite and aerial veiw considered to more provision evidence about the foundation of the city. The key research question is why Sassanian authorities chose this plain for construction of a new city?

Inscriptions have always played the most important role inIslamic architecture, especially in tombs. Calligraphy gradually found a prominent place in Islamic architecture and art.In general, one of the ways to become more familiar withIslamic architecture courses, along with the use of decorative designs, is to pay attention to inscriptions, because inscriptions represent all the creations of Muslim artists in aparticular period. The spiritual spaces created by the inscriptions in religious places such as mosques, schools, shrines,monasteries, etc. lead man to illumination. The themes ofthe inscriptions in Islamic buildings are various, includingthe blessed names of God, verses, and chapters of the Quran,the name of the Prophet, imams, religious poems, the nameof the client, the name of the ruler, the scribe and the date ofmaking the inscriptions, and also Persian and Arabic poems.Wise words are the commandments and covenants of kingsand advice. The Seljuk era is one of the most important periods of Islamic aesthetics that has created many changes inIranian works of art, especially architectural decorations. Inthis era, due to the peace and political stability during theSeljuk dynasty, artists had more favorable conditions andwere able to create numerous works. Working on stone wasmore difficult than other elements, and on the other hand,high-quality stone was found in small quantities. Masonryand stone carving were abandoned after the Sassanid dynasty until a few centuries later. But during the tenth andeleventh centuries AD, artists turned their attention to this artagain. Consequently, stone altars and tombswere created, which in some cases are very similar to thealtars, in other words, the use of stone experienced a reemergence. Before the present study, the usage of poems ontombstones during the Seljuk period has not been observedor published. The purpose of this study is to introduce twoSeljuk tombstones that were discovered in Maymeh )Isfahan( and are now kept in the city museum. The secondpurpose is to discuss the artistic style and examine the similarities and differences with other Seljuk works, especiallytombstones, to comment on the identity of these works. Thequestions of the present study can be expressed as follows:How can the artistic style of these tombstones be explained?Also, considering the lack of direct reference, is it possibleto comment on the identity of the artist who made theseworks based on archaeological studies? According to thetombstone inscriptions of the Gordeh Museum, it should benoted that Arabic poems have also been used in the inscriptions of these two tombstones. The artistic style used in thesetwo tombstones is different from other known Seljuk tombstones, which is probably due to the difference in the placeof construction of these works. Also, because of the greatsimilarities between the tombstones of the Pollen Museumand the stone altar of Maymeh, it can be claimed that thebuilder of the former tombstones is the same as the one whobuilt the Maymeh altar.

As it appears from historical texts, the favourable bioclimatic conditions of the Natanz region and its location in the communication network of Iran’s central plateau, have provided the ground for the formation of numerous settlements, as well as diverse and yet valuable architectural works. Presence of pre-Islamic ancient sites (Such as Arisman ancient site, fire temple, castle, karezes) and also monuments from the Islamic era in Natanz (Such as Juma Mosque, Sheikh Abdul Samad Complex and collections of public, commercial and residential monuments), have turned this city into one of the most valuable ancient settlements in the country; highlighting the importance of the region from prehistoric up to the present century. According to published sources, Natanz's socio-political developments in early-Islamic centuries were influenced by the changes that occurred in the cities of Isfahan and Kashan. Also, the brilliant effects of the historical monuments of Kashan and Isfahan cities have caused the neglect of the monuments of the city of Natanz by tourists and historians of different periods. Neglect that has also affected archaeological, urban, architectural and historical research. The authors have tried to determine the evolution of the city of Natanz, relying on the written sources, in order to identify the factors and events that have influenced the formation and development of this city. Results of the present study revealed that the construction history of this city can be traced back to the Sasanian Empire. Moreover, it became clear that Natanz’s location on the communication network of Iran’s central plateau and It has been one of the centers of caravans crossing and trade and the Central Plateau of Iran, and also its geographical location, environmental conditions and the special defensive function of the natanz city Its importance in different historical periods, especially the Ilkhanid and Safavid periods it has figured

Castles are one of the most amazing innovations of Iranians in the field of architecture and one of the most numerous remnants of the past. These buildings, which have been formed in most areas with the aim of securing the inhabitants of this land, have been developed and developed with the passage of time and in accordance with the existing needs and according to the construction location, performance and objectives of its builders. the two main types of plain and mountain castles, mountain castles, commonly known as fortresses, have a more diverse space organization and form and its construction location determines the type of its map. Tehran province is one of the regions that due to its special geographical location and located in the path of highways connecting the central areas of the country with other parts of the country, as well as the existence of the ancient and historical city of Ray, which was at some point in the history of the Capital of Iran, countless castles can be searched in its plains and mountains. field studies of authors, a considerable number of these castles were identified, some of which are based on alborz heights overlooking tehran plain. Therefore, determining the spatial organization, form and function of these castles is the subject of research and its results are presented in this paper. In achieving this goal, answering questions about spatial and temporal distribution, the governing model of space organization, form and function, as well as the focus of these defense fortifications were necessary. In field studies, which were carried out by reviewing and documenting all samples, 159 fortresses and defensive buildings from pre-Islamic times and various Islamic periods were identified these, 69 castles and defensive buildings (about 40%) are located in mountainous areas and more than 50% of them are located in the east of Tehran in Firuzkooh city, most of which were founded in pre-Islamic times and have been exploited in various Islamic periods. One of the prominent examples of mountain fortresses located in the center of Firuzkooh city is a castle called Firuzkooh or Firuz Shah, which is the largest and most important mountain tin in Tehran. In this paper, we have tried to introduce this highly prominent and identified sample by relying on reliable historical documents and sources and archaeological field researches.

In this article, with the aim of investigating and evaluating the material culture left in the cultural zone of Hawraman region, the importance of water in this mountainous region and how to manage and control it has been discussed. In the field research, the results of which show these findings in this research, we tried to answer these questions, what were the principles and methods of water resources management in Hawraman region? And what role have the types of water sources and water structures played in the formation of settlements and the way of life of the communities in the region? In the results of this research, it was found that surface water sources (Sirvan River) and atmospheric precipitation, especially snow with a steep slope in the Hawraman region, have played an important role in the dynamics of the cultural landscape of Hawraman. Based on this, by creating management and transfer networks of water resources in the depths of the valleys and through digging or building canals, it creates water facilities that, while continuing and developing settlements, provide cultural, economic and social communication fields along with livelihood.he does It has been stable in Hawraman from the past until today.

Watermills are considered valuable treasures of Iranian indigenous and cultural knowledge. Due to the climatic conditions of this land, the people of the past have tried to make maximum use of water energy by building water structures. Therefore, watermills that have used the knowledge of water engineering, mechanics, and architecture, have been used in different parts of Iran since ancient times. One of these water structures is Qutbiyeh Mill in Sirjan city, identified and studied during archaeological field activities in 2019. The purpose of this article is to introduce and study the Qotbiyeh water mill in Sirjan plain to gain a proper understanding of its performance and architecture analysis. The questions of this research are as follows: Qutbiyeh water mill belongs to which type of water mills in Iran? What were the components and the architectural structure of this mill? The present study was conducted by descriptive-analytical method, and its data were collected based on field studies and literature. The results showed that the Sirjan Qotbiyeh water mill was a furnace watermill, working with the water of the Qotbiyeh qanat, and its architectural structure included a complete set of different main and side spaces surrounded by a circular defensive wall.

The favorable bioclimatic conditions of the Natanz region, in addition to its location in the adjacent to the southern communication network in the Iran’s central plateau, and especially its geographic position between the two strategic cities of Kashan and Isfahan have provided the ground for the formation and development of numerous settlements and various architectural heritages. Despite the prominent position of civilization and cultural-historical city of Natanz in the civility of this land, few studies have been fulfilled the recognition of the factors affecting the formation and development of its neighborhoods. Additionally, there is a scientific gap in the field of documentation and determining the proper chronology of development the architectural heritages of Natanz, including the tomb of Sheikh Abdul Samad, the Jameh Mosque, the tomb of Seyyed Waqif, and other religious, commercial, and public utility buildings. The authors in this study focused on the role of the inscriptions of Natanz historical monuments in recognizing the chronology of neighborhood development. Thus, the principle research query is how the Natanz's neighborhoods were formed, expanded and flourished in different historical periods. The authors benefited from the inscriptions of the specific historical buildings and undeniable information gathered from the historical neighborhoods of the city of Natanz which were developed in the Islamic era. To achieve this goal, all the historical inscriptions of the architectural heritages of this city have been identified and documented. The preparation of the design of the inscriptions has not only enabled their accurate reading; but also, has provided the necessary materials for studies related to the formation and evolution of the historical neighborhoods of Natanz.

Typology and Chronology of Celadons Obtained during Archeological survey in Sirjan Plain Celadon is a valuable type of pottery from the Islamic period that was imported from China to Iran in the 3-11 century AH, and due to its popularity, it was produced in centers such as Kerman since the 8th century AH. Celadon has been found during archaeological excavations and survey in the Persian Gulf coasts and even inland regions in Iran. Sirjan Plain in southeastern Iran is one of the areas from which a variety of celadon was obtained during surface survey in 2018. In response to questions about technical specifications, temporal distribution, and imported or locally made nature of celadon obtained from Sirjan Plain, the authors have examined samples from Shahre Qhadem e Sirjan, Qaleh Sang, and Bagh Bamid sites. The study objective was typology, chronology, and determination of the form, type, and techniques used in making and decorating these wares. The study method included fieldwork and secondary research with a descriptive–analytical approach. The comparative results of the study showed that the celadon under study can be classified into six types including Yue, Longquan, Dusun, Martaban, Jingdezhen and Guangdong. According to research findings, these objects were imported from China, most likely via southern coasts of the Persian Gulf, from the third century AH until the Safavid period. Only two percent of the celadons, i.e. those from to the Safavid period excavated in Bagh Bamid site, were locally produced, most likely in Kerman.Meanwhile, the presence of Jingdezhen celadon indicates the continuation of the import of this type of luxury pottery from the ninth century BC to the Safavid period in the Sirjan plain. These samples are comparable to celadons obtained from sites such as Mahroban, Harireh in Kish, Old Hormuz region, Shahr e Kohan in Jiroft, Yazd, Bataneh Port, Askar Mukram, Williamson pottery collection, Julfar and Ras al-Khaimah.

Architecture is among the important branches of art and civilization and architectural structures, beside their practical uses, have also served as the ground for the emergence of different arts and as indications of the grand status and glories of their founders. Among the various branches of architecture, tomb structures and funeral monuments have long played significant roles in culture, civilization and society of Iran and also have occupied an essential place in the history of our architecture. Therefore, beside the mosques, shrines have been the most popular public buildings in Iran and have entered the cultural tissues of Iranian life and society. A large portion of the evolution of architecture in Islamic era can be traced in the holy shrines and tombs. The formation, identity and being of these buildings are often closely connected with great local, national, political and religious leaders and characters. Thee architectural monuments also deserve scholarly studies in terms of their artistic, social, historical, cultural and religious aspects. Caring for shrines and building them is related to belief in hereafter, desire for immortality and love of followers and lovers of the deceased persons. Building of such places which come under various names such as “burial place”, “shrine”, “sanctuary”, “sanctum”, “receptacle”, “tomb”, “sepulcher”, “tower”, “imamzadeh”, etc. roughly began in 4th century A H. and became then more prevalent is eastern and northern Iran through the practice and believes of various sects and dynasties. The process became especially popular during the Shite dynasties such as Alavids (250-360 A H), and Buwayhids (320-447 A. H.) whose political power and rule helped the building of such places, shrines and tombs more than ever.  In the Islamic societies of middle centuries, shrines found a very high stature among the masses and ordinary religious people. Interestingly, building shrines for great religious and social leaders has been more passionately pursued in Iran than in other Islamic countries so that, Ernst Diez, the Austrian art historian, “such buildings are the most popular and prevalent in Islamic Iran.” In fact, it was for the grand status and importance of such places that the first major undertaking that kings did after succession, was erecting graves and shrines for themselves and their fathers and relatives so as to be redeemed by God and gain an everlasting fame and name. Regarding their shape and format, sepulchers are basically divided into two forms: tower tombs and non-tower (rectangles tombs). A large portion of the shrines in Islamic era are tower tombs which have different shapes such as circular, multisided  and finny, and also have common features such as a tall outside tower, and in them, emphasis is on the altitude not the extent of the building. Although some scholars have tried to work out a justification for the birth and building of tower tombs, none has ever come up with an all-satisfying evidence for the formation of such building along with the Islamic traditions governing them. In Hamadan province, Iran, there are some tower tombs from different Islamic eras, such as Ghorban Tower, Baba Hossein Tower in Malayer, Hayaquq Tower Tomb, etc. in the present study, we have undertaken to introduce one such tower tomb and describe its architectural and archeological characteristics; that is “Azhar Tower” that is located at the Dargazin section of Razan city, Hamadan Province. The city is situated at the north of Hamadan province and has many historical and cultural works belonging to different historical epochs, mostly Islamic era. The tower tomb with finny shape ,also called AzharImamzadeh, is one of the works from the Islamic era, but has not so far been comprehensively studied and there exists still many ambiguities about its history and being. The present study, thus, aims at considering the structural features of this building, its decorative elements, architectural innovations, and finding about the identity of the person buried under it. It also intends to consider this tomb as one of the few tower tombs with a finny shape and a star-like base for the tower, and comparing it with similar buildings in order to trace the mutual influences exchanged between it and similar forms both before and after its date. The research methodology applied for this purpose is an archeological case studythrough a descriptive-analytic study alongside using written sources such as historical and geographical documents and travelogues. The main questions posed by the project are: 1- in which historical age was the Azghar Tower built and with which similar architectural works can it be compared? 2- What are the innovations, and the architectural and decorative elements of the Tower? 3- Regarding the great importance of the Dargazin region in different historical eras, especially in middle Islamic epochs and the great sociopolitical people that have emerged in this region, what can be known about the identity of the person buried in there? The final results of the study show that the Azhar Tower Tomb dates back to the first half of the eighth century A. H. when the Ilkhanate (654-750 A H). Also, as the last tower shrine with a finny design in the history of Iranian Islamic architecture, it had been built based on the architectural and decorative forms dominant in the Ilkhanate age, and had been affected by some tower tombs in the central and northern parts of Iran, particularly, Imamzadeh Abdullah, and Ubayd Allah of Damavand, and the Bastam Tower. It is also most probable that the Azhar Tower was built for the burial of one of the outstanding man of the Dargazin region, named Sheik Sharaf-o-AldinDargazini.

The historical site of Qalat Mutabad in Piranshahr is of paramount importance in numerous historical and cultural documents such as potteries and brick architectural remains, especially in terms of architectural maps and plans. The existence of a star-shaped plan in the design of the site’s outer fence illustrates the importance and pivotal role of this area in the Piranshahr plain. The site is located beside one of the branches of the Little Zab (or Lower Zab) River, which has been gradually destroyed due to the passage of time and the land-use change, “use as a military base in the contemporary period,” and currently the evidence of the architectural debris of the building at the site is evident. Examples of star-shaped plan design in different parts of Iran, as well as European fortresses, can be observed, and it is comparable to the plan of Qalat Mutabad in this respect. The main problem of this article is to evaluate the site relying on the available documents and evidence so that we study the importance of military forts in the Piranshahr plain while achieving a relative dating of the site. Accordingly, some questions about the architectural structure, especially its plan and the military and residential function of the site arise. According to written historical sources, the study of similar examples, as well as material artifacts at the site level, hypotheses concerning the attribution of the site to the period after Safavid, “Afshar or Qajar,” military function inspired by Western architectural elements, are presented. This study was conducted in a historical, descriptive-analytical method. In addition to studying historical sources and field documentation by the authors at the site, aerial images and data gained from these images were exploited. 

Coins are the most convincing documents used in the definitive chronology and measurement of political, economic and cultural transformations of past eras. Coins of each period represents the political sovereignty, script, language, art, religion, civilization, socio-economic status, trade relations of the nation and the countries of their past. Numismatics is an interdisciplinary knowledge that provides unique information to archaeologists, historians, sociologists and social scientists, political scientists, economics, linguistics, art and symbolism, etc. This is precisely why reflection in this group of archaeological evidence is important for scholars, historians, and archaeologists. The Bavand dynasty/Bavandian (651-1349 AD) were one of the Shiite families that for centuries, especially during the Abbasid caliphate, ruled and minted coins in the northern regions of the Alborz Mountains. Although the Bavandian were often independent rulers, but were sometimes subjugated by their contemporary caliphs and sultans. Now, the question arises that with which characteristics of the Bavandian coins can be used to distinguish from other coins of the Islamic era? The aim is to find out how the Bavandian differentiated their coins from the coins of the Abbasid caliphs and, and precisely, depending on which of the local and regional governments they minted their coins.The results of the present study show that    the Bavandian struck coins to prove their sovereignty, consolidate their power and their relative independence. Although due to political-security reasons, they had to temporize with the Abbasid caliphs, but by tapping the phrase "Ali Wali Allah" on the back of the coins, they have managed to establish themselves as a Shiite government independent of the caliphs.

Mahabad or formerly Savojbolagh Mukri is one of the most important cities in northwestern Iran in the southern basin of Lake Urmia It was founded by Budaq Sultan, one of the Mukri rulers, during the reign of Shah Suleiman the Safavid and for four centuries was the center of Mukrian province. In the past decades, several copper coins have been found in the city of Mahabad by the local people, which according to the inscription have been minted in this city. In the present article, an attempt is made to investigate the reasons and grounds for minting coins in this city and to show their belonging to the Savojbolagh Mint. It is assumed that the location of Savojbolagh in the communication route between Baghdad and Tabriz has led to the development of the market and its commercial centers and has necessitated the establishment of a multiplication center there. Also, the discovery and identification of copper coins in the city of Mahabad and the surrounding areas indicate that they were minted at the Dar al-Zarb in Savojbolagh. Leading research has been completed by library and field methods and by descriptive and analytical methods. The result of this research confirms that in comparing the multiplied shapes on these coins and other samples, they can be attributed to the reign of the Mukri rulers until the middle of the Qajar period and the reign of Sheikh Ali Khan, Budaq Khan, and Abdullah Khan. The existence of a mint in this city also indicates its political, military, and economic importance in the past centuries.

The Neyriz Plain, which is located between Kerman and Fars provinces, with an area of around 240km2 has hosted important settlements belonging to the Islamic era (Figure 1). In order to identifying these settlements and to determine their chronological order, a systematic surface survey was carried out by the authors at the first season of 2017. The first step was to study the ceramic fragments collected from surface survey, and compare them on the basis of similarities of their forms, fabric and decoration. Based on the results of data analysis, the ceramics were classified into eight main categories. So, the main aim of this paper is to perform classification, typification, and propose a relative chronology of the collected potteries from Islamic period sites from the Neyriz Plain. The results suggest a strong relation between the ceramics belonging to the Early to Mid-Islamic era (11-16 cetury AD) and the eastern Iranian civilizations, such as Sirjan. For instance, the slip-painted and polychrome Sgraffiato potteries have considerable similarity to those obtained from Sirjan. Indeed, the Neyriz plain may be considered as one of the main distribution areas of the slip-painted potteries of Sirjan. Moreover, the ceramics dated 13-17 centuries AD are indication of the cultural ties and trade relations between this region of Fars province with Nishabur, Kerman and Sistan regions of Iran. The main aim of this paper is to perform classification, typification, and to propose a relative chronology of the collected potteries from Islamic period sites from the Neyriz Plain. The objectives are to compare Neyriz Plain potteries to similar ones from other Islamic archaeological sites, and to recognize inter and intraregional connections of the ancient settlements of this plain and other ceramic production centers. The present research aims answer the question of to what extend settlements of the Neyriz Plain find cultural relation to other Iranian Islamic settlements? And how much study of ceramic fragments will reveal such relationships? Primary investigation of historical sources indicates interregional cultural ties between Neyriz and Shiraz (on the west), and Kerman and Sirjan provinces (from the east). Furthermore, considering the location of Neyriz Plain on the main route between Shiraz to Kerman corridor, vast cultural ties can be imagined between Neyriz Plain settelement and eastern Iranian cities, such as Sirjan, Kerman and even Nishabour on the northeast of Iran. The present research adopts a descriptive-analytical method in both fieldwork and bibliographical studies. Fieldworks consist of pottery findings, typology, and classification of findings (based on similarities of their forms, and decorative elements), while bibliographic activities include literature survey, similar findings, and suggestive dating. Although there have been efforts in investigating pottery data of northern coasts of the Persian Gulf, there is little information on regional data, especially areas between Fars, Kerman, and Mokran (northern area of Persian Gulf) during early Islamic periods. Neyriz, located at the eastern Fars Province on the Shiraz to Sirjan trade corridor, is a marvelous ancient region with remarkable sites. Further to identification of 63 sites at Neyriz Plain, some 911 potsherds recovered from the Bakun to late Islamic periods. The authors focus on 440 Islamic fragments, which were generally divided into two unglazed (214 pieces), and glazed (226 pieces) sherds. Considering their form, temper, impurity and decorations, they were categorized to eight main groups, towards chronological comparison against other similar samples.  Unglazed potteries include two slipped ones and potteries with incised and stamped decorations, which are characteristically the majority in the collection and consisted of two groups of thickly slipped potteries (Figure 2). Glazed samples include six main groups of monochrome, Sgraffito, splashed, slipped painted, underglaze painting, and painting on glaze ceramics. The potteries reveal information about patterns of production, consumption, and distribution of pottery during different periods. Thick slipped potteries date to Sassanid to early Islamic periods (3-8 centuries AD). Considering incised designs under slips and color of slips within the group, it appears that all four groups are from the same period. The first group, with thick slip and fine temper, from Williamson Collection, date to 2nd century BC to 7th AD century (Priestman, 2005: 232-234, 402, Pl. 82-84). It appears, considering incised designs with similar themes, they are later than the other three groups, while they date to a same period. It is confirmable following absence of the same findings from two other Parthian sites in Neyriz Plain. Potteries with incised designs frequently associated with potteries with stamped, and cylindrical designs, similar to findings from Sirjan and Qasr-i-Abu Nasr (Whitcomb, 1985: 122, 135). However, turquoise glaze is the most common monochrome glaze; it is the most abundant one. On the other hand, there are other monochrome glazes that characteristically are significant in the pottery studies. The white mono chrome pottery that is one of the particles of the “Samarra Horizon”, has several production centers including Sirjan (Williamson, 1987: 15), which appears an indication of a bigger pattern of relations, comparing to previous period. The green mono chrome glazed pottery that is very similar to the same color Sgraffito is reported also as findings of eastern coasts of Africa. The turquoise mono chrome glaze with earthen temper, vastly range many forms and quality of glaze that date as wide as Sassanid to Late Islamic periods, for continuity of production and consumption. The other type is stone paste that mainly appears as open form vessels and date to 11-13 century.    Slip painted wares of Neyriz are similar to the findings from Sirjan, which appears, as a characteristic pottery within 10th and 11th centuries AD, as an indication of more relations to Sirjan. Potteries with splashed and Sgraffito glaze are chronologically and technically similar, which indicate a penetration of Sirjan to Neyriz. Pottery with underglaze paintings from group 1 are similar to findings from other centers including Kashan, Gorgan, and Soltan Abad that had commercial relations. Such pottery can be found in other areas of Iran as well. The underglaze painted Potteries from group 2 indicate commercial relation to the regions such as Nishapur and Samarqand, of which productions have found in other regions including southern Africa. Black painting under turquoise glaze potteries are of common types dated to 13-17 centuries. Blue and white potteries produced at various centers, the closest one Kirman. Turquoise & Black Underglaze-Painted Ware, Blue and White Underglaze-Painted are similar to findings from Keram and Sistan that indicate vast inter regional cultural relation. The absence of some mostly known Islamic potteries including moulded Celadon, and luster ceramics are of the other issues, significant in studies of potteries of Neyriz Plain, which probably is for lack of production and circulation of the wares in the region.

Mahabad, which in the past was called Savojbolagh, Sablagh in the language of the native people, was the center of a part of Iranian Kurdistan called Mokrian. The former Savojbolagh (now Mahabad) is one of the most important cities in northwestern Iran in the southern part of Lake Urmia, which was the center of Mokrian for four centuries. Based on the archaeological evidence, the city of Mahabad was built during the reign of Shah Suleiman (1107-1077 AH), by the order of the Mukrish ruler "Buddha Sultan".and grew and developed from the late Safavid era to the early Pahlavi era. Most of the remaining monuments of the Qajar and Pahlavi era of Mahabad are now the residential buildings of influential people in the city. Many of the buildings belonging to the affluent classes of the city have a wide variety of decorations, Therefore, the purpose of the present article is to discuss the features and types of decorations used in the residential buildings of the mentioned period in Mahabad. So it is necessary to answer to some questions about art styles and patterns that influence the formulation of these ornaments. Since there has been no coherent research on the decorations and architectural style of Mahabad buildings in Mukriyan region, Therefore, their study can provide a broader understanding of the artists' efforts in creating suitable settlements. As a result, it was found that most of the decorative elements were influenced by the facades of the prosperous persons Due to the geographical conditions of the area, many of the decorations have been made with brick and stone materials. Although the decorative designs used in Mahabad are similar to those in cities like Sanandaj, However, these monuments built by native Mukrish artists.

The layout and fabric of a city reflect the influence of beliefs and cultures of their inhabitants. Amongst Iranian ancient cities, the historical city of Yazd, thanks to its intact and less-affected old fabric, is an excellent arena for investigating such impact. According to the historical sources, Zoroastrians lived in nine (out of seventy seven) districts of Yazd in the Qajar era. Since Zoroastrians continue to live in these urban spaces to date, it has been tried in the present research to investigate the extent of influence of Zoroastrian’s religion on the formation of such spaces.This research, therefore, investigates the architectural elements with religious function in one of the main Zoroastrian districts in Yazd City, and the religious commandments that have influenced the formation of its space. To this end, a relatively well-preserved area i.e. the Dasturān district, is selected and its religious buildings were identified. The results of fieldworks combined with the findings of historical and religious texts, confirm that the religious spaces had a pivotal role in the formation of the fabric of Zoroastrian city.

Savojbolagh Mokri )the present-day Mahabad( is one of the most important Kurdish- inhabited regions in Iran which was a part of Kurdish Province in this land called Makriyan for four centuries. The Bazar of Mahabad is one of the most prominent historical urban spaces of the region. Based on available historical evidence, the Bazar of Savojbolagh was built towards the end of the Safavid period and, later, turned into the most important commercial center of the northeast of Iran during the Qajar period. In the present paper, the authors investigate the process of the turning of this Bazar into the commercial center of this region during the given period. In other words, they have tried to provide a response to the following questions: what were the most important factors underlying the growth and development of this Bazar, and what were the reasons behind its turning into the commercial center of Iran in its region in the Qajar era? It is assumed that some of the main reasons in this regard were the particular spatial and connecting status of Mahabad among its neighboring regions, such as North Iraq, Anatolia, Russia, and the interior of the plateau of Iran; its vicinity to one of the side roads of the Silk Route, and its role as the bridge connecting Tabriz and Baghdad. The findings of this study, which was conducted using the field and library methods, demonstrate that, in addition to its specific connecting features, some environmental and natural factors, including the forests of Sardasht and Baneh areas and the cultivation of tobacco and animal husbandry in the rich pastures of this region, played a significant role in choosing the Bazar of Mahabad as the commercial center of the northwest of Iran during the Qajar period.

Given the frequent references of authors to the commercial and political significance of Jiroft and its desirable features in various Islamic periods, different routes must have branched from this city for the departure and arrival of tradesmen’s caravans. The Jiroft-Hormuz route was probably one of the most important of such routes. Unfortunately, in spite of the significance and fame that it enjoyed during its own time, it has not received much attention from the historians, researchers, and archeologists of Islamic periods. In the past, Jiroft was considered to be one of the major trade centers of Iran connecting the Southeast of the country to its central and southern regions. It was also connected to the Persian Gulf through its famous waterfront, Hormuz. The caravan route of Jiroft to the Port of Hormuz was one of the important routes of the early to middle Islamic centuries, and the distribution of several cultural elements along this route demonstrates its significance and splendor in the state of Kerman. The main reason for the importance of this route was its supreme commercial value as it connected Jiroft as an important urban center, which was linked to the Southeast of Iran, to Hormuz, which was an important commercial port at that time. The present study aimed to examine the route connecting Jiroft to the Port of Hormuz up to Maghun district and determine its true value. In doing so, while employing a historical approach, the authors explored a number of historical and geographical sources, archeological reports, and the findings of methodical archeological studies in Jiroft, Cheshmeh Shah, and Kalatak Boluk. The findings of this study indicate that the Jiroft-Hormuz route passed through Cheshmeh Shah, Boluk, and Faryab, which were culturally linked with each other, and then reached the Port of Hormuz. The studies carried out on the pottery found in archeological investigations revealed that the mentioned regions enjoyed prosperity during the Islamic middle periods, particularly in the Seljuk era, but lost their affluence in later periods.

Bukan is one of the most important Kurds-residing cities of the South of West Azerbaijan and the third most populous city of this province after Urmia and Khoy. Some of the events and incidents in relation to Bukan and its great figures have been recorded in the travelogues of a number of travelers and researchers such as Minorsky, Demorgan, and others during the Qajar era. Historical evidence suggests that this city was built during the reign of Naser al-Din Shah Qajar based on the foundation of a small and sparsely populated village. At this time, the city of Bukan experienced great growth and expansion due to the attention it received from Aziz Khan Mokri Family. The present paper aims to provide a response to the questions of: “what were the important elements affecting the development and expansion of Bukan?” and “what were the reasons for choosing the present location as the official ruling center of the region during the Qajar period?” It is assumed that the main reasons for this choice were the particular spatial status and linking feature of the village of Bukan among all the residential areas of the region. Through benefitting from library and field methods, the findings of the study indicate that, in addition to the specific linking and geographical conditions of the region, the efforts of its local rulers, particularly Mokri Family, played a significant role in the establishment of administrative, religious, and non- profit units in this area. Moreover, some new spaces were added to the Qajar core of this city during the Pahlavi period.

Muslims believed that geometry was as important as mathematics, astronomy, and music. Iranian architecture focused on beauty, alongside which the science of geometry functioned as a powerful tool enabling Iranian architects to measure spatial proportions and create balance and beauty on the ground. Domes, the making of which had started during the Parthian Era, became vastly prevalent upon the rise of Islam in order to cover Islamic buildings, particularly mosques, and, thus, turned into the symbol of Islamic architecture. A dome looks like a container and is constructed based on objective principles of mathematics and statics. The Safavid era represent one of the creative and dynamic periods of architecture, particularly, dome construction, and several beautiful works of this era are still standing today. In this paper, the writer has tried to examine the role of geometry and geometric proportions in the architecture of the Safavid period with an emphasis on the domes of the well-known mosques of that time in Isfahan. The related study was conducted following the analytic-descriptive method while resorting to available documents and performing field studies. The findings demonstrate that the Safavids paid particular attention to proportion in architecture and changed the quadrangular design of the space under the dome into the circular design of a dome. During this period, geometry became simpler and disconnected hollow domes became more common.

The construction of religious structures holds a particular place in the various branches of architecture. Upon the rise of Islam in Iran and the resulting changes in the ruling system and rituals, the functions and usage of buildings changed. Fars Province is one of the important regions in Iran which greatly benefitted from the arrival of Islam, and the Muslims living there employed many of the useful recommendations of Shar’ and the intellect in different aspects of their life. For example, they used the structure of fire temples to construct mosques and create a place for the gathering of Muslims. The present paper is intended to examine and analyze the process of changing the fire temples of Izadkhast and Estakhr into mosques during the early Islamic centuries in Fars with an emphasis on the architectural structure of the mosques and based on archeological proofs and documented evidence. This study was conducted following the descriptive-analytic and field methods. The required data were collected from library sources and also through field-based observation and investigation and use of maps and croquis. The results of this study indicate that the two mosques were the products of changing the functions of fire temples. Nevertheless, the space of the original structures underwent some qualitative and essential changes based on monotheistic beliefs. In fact, in the light of a minimum of physical alterations, a number of important qualitative changes were made to them in line with Islamic principles and beliefs. For example, the fire and hearth were removed from the center of the inner space of the building, and the Qibla angle was covered with a wall and the symbol of Qibla. Moreover, in order to make the spaces under the square domes more internal and exclude the attention to the outside, portals, porches, left-side corridors, inner yards, doors, and external walls were added to the main buildings,the main axes of whichwere in the direction of Qibla.

Saveh is one of the famous cities of Jibal regioin in Islamic age and it continuously, has played a particular role in history due to its location in the communication path of north-east to capital city Baghdad. The special position of this city, and its favourable natural condition (a great plain with the area of 238000 HA, two permanent rivers and the widespread irrigation network), have made Saveh to triumphantly pass the historical developments and be in the spotlight of geographers and historians. Since the remain of the ancient Saveh and its historical context have been changed due to development of the new city, the study of the developments of this city would be inevitable. This paper has attempted to study historical development of Saveh based on written sources and also the reports provided by visitors who have visited this city. Indeed the findings of the current research could be useful and applicable retrieval of the spatial organization of this city and its date range protection.